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Antarctic Treaty System

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The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War, designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires, Argentina.[3]

Antarctic Treaty
The Antarctic Treaty
French: Traité sur l'Antarctique
Russian: Договор об Антарктике
Spanish: Tratado Antártico
Flag of the Antarctic Treaty System
TypeCondominium
Signed1 December 1959[1]
LocationWashington, D.C., United States
Effective23 June 1961
ConditionRatification of all 12 signatories
Signatories12[2]
Parties57[2]
DepositaryFederal government of the United States[2]
LanguagesEnglish, French, Russian, and Spanish
Full text
Antarctic Treaty at Wikisource
A 2006 satellite composite image of Antarctica

The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961.[4] The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[1] These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024, the treaty has 57 parties.[5]

History

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Map of research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2015)

1940s

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After World War II, the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump, the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices.[6] Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for a hypothetical war in the Antarctic.

On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression.

In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of the United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting a plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance.

In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making a territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none.[6]

International conflicts

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Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic.[7]

Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War, and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February.[8] In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south, which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948.[9]

On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island, leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On 15 February, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and a nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near South Georgia.[10] A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April.

On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare the invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August, the Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims were closed.[11][12]

In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly.[6]

International Geophysical Year

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In 1950, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year. At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization, the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At the ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica.

Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on the continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until the studies being carried out had been completed.

Negotiation of the treaty

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Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in the mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of the continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years.[13]

The positions of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused a crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition.

The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in the framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty.

As of the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a relative majority.[14][15][16][17]

Other agreements

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Disposal of waste by simply dumping it at the shoreline, as at the Russian Bellingshausen Station on King George Island, is no longer permitted by the Protocol on Environmental Protection.

Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include:

Bilateral treaties

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  • Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October 1938)[19]
  • Treaty Between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on Cooperation in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November 2003)[20]
  • Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January 2007)[21]

Meetings

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The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 57 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 28 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there.[22] The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM), which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts.[23]

Parties

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As of 2024, there are 57 states party to the treaty,[2] 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status.[24] The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty".[25]

 
  Parties with consulting status making a claim to Antarctic territory
  Parties with consulting status reserving the right to make a territorial claim
[26]
  Other parties with consulting status
  Parties without consulting status
  Non-party UN member states and observers

Overview of parties to the Antarctic Treaty System

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Country[2][24][27][28] Signature Ratification/
Accession 		Consultative
status[24][28] 		Notes
  Argentina (claim)* 1 Dec 1959 23 Jun 1961 23 Jun 1961
  Australia (claim) 1 Dec 1959 23 Jun 1961 23 Jun 1961
  Austria No 25 Aug 1987 No
  Belarus No 27 Dec 2006 No
  Belgium 1 Dec 1959 26 Jul 1960 23 Jun 1961
  Brazil (unofficial claim) No 16 May 1975 27 Sep 1983
  Bulgaria No 11 Sep 1978 5 Jun 1998
  Canada No 4 May 1988 No
  Chile (claim)* 1 Dec 1959 23 Jun 1961 23 Jun 1961
  China No 8 Jun 1983 7 Oct 1985
  Colombia No 31 Jan 1989 No
  Costa Rica No 11 Aug 2022 No
  Cuba No 16 Aug 1984 No
  Czech Republic No 1 Jan 1993 1 Apr 2014 Succession from   Czechoslovakia, which acceded on 14 June 1962.[29]
  Denmark No 20 May 1965 No
  Ecuador No 15 Sep 1987 19 Nov 1990
  Estonia No 17 May 2001 No
  Finland No 15 May 1984 20 Oct 1989
  France (claim) 1 Dec 1959 16 Sep 1960 23 Jun 1961
  Germany (historical claim) No 5 Feb 1979 3 Mar 1981 Ratified as   West Germany.

  East Germany also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany.[28][30]

  Greece No 8 Jan 1987 No
  Guatemala No 31 Jul 1991 No
  Hungary No 27 Jan 1984 No
  Iceland No 13 Oct 2015[31] No
  India No 19 Aug 1983 12 Sep 1983
  Italy No 18 Mar 1981 5 Oct 1987
  Japan (historical claim) 1 Dec 1959 4 Aug 1960 23 Jun 1961
  Kazakhstan No 27 Jan 2015 No
  Malaysia No 31 Oct 2011 No
  Monaco No 31 May 2008 No
  Mongolia No 23 Mar 2015 No
  Netherlands No 30 Mar 1967 19 Nov 1990
  New Zealand (claim) 1 Dec 1959 1 Nov 1960 23 Jun 1961
  North Korea No 21 Jan 1987 No
  Norway (claim) 1 Dec 1959 24 Aug 1960 23 Jun 1961
  Pakistan No 1 Mar 2012 No
  Papua New Guinea No 16 Mar 1981 No Succession from   Australia. Effective from their independence on 16 September 1975.[32]
  Peru No 10 Apr 1981 9 Oct 1989
  Poland No 8 Jun 1961 29 Jul 1977
  Portugal No 29 Jan 2010 No
  Romania No 15 Sep 1971 No
  Russia† 1 Dec 1959 2 Nov 1960 23 Jun 1961 Ratified as the   Soviet Union.[33]
  San Marino[34] No 14 Feb 2023 No
  Saudi Arabia No 22 May 2024 No
  Slovakia No 1 Jan 1993 No Succession from   Czechoslovakia, which acceded on 14 June 1962.[35]
  Slovenia No 22 Apr 2019 No
  South Africa[36] 1 Dec 1959 21 Jun 1960 23 Jun 1961
  South Korea No 28 Nov 1986 9 Oct 1989
  Spain No 31 Mar 1982 21 Sep 1988
  Sweden No 24 Apr 1984 21 Sep 1988
   Switzerland No 15 Nov 1990 No
  Turkey No 24 Jan 1996 No
  Ukraine No 28 Oct 1992 4 Jun 2004
  United Kingdom (claim)* 1 Dec 1959 31 May 1960 23 Jun 1961
  United States† 1 Dec 1959 18 Aug 1960 23 Jun 1961
  Uruguay No 11 Jan 1980 7 Oct 1985
  Venezuela No 24 May 1999 No

* Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants.
† Reserved the right to make a claim.[26]

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

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Main article: Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China.

The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas:

  • Supporting the annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and the meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).
  • Facilitating the exchange of information between the Parties required in the Treaty and the Environment Protocol.
  • Collecting, storing, arranging and publishing the documents of the ATCM.
  • Providing and disseminating public information about the Antarctic Treaty system and Antarctic activities.
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Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country.[37] Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined,[38] was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to the area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole.[39]

Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle.[40]

Australia

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This 1959 cover commemorated the opening of the Wilkes post office in the Australian Antarctic Territory.

Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows the laws of the Australian Capital Territory) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981.[41]

United States

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The law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence.[42]

Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C. § 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute:

  • the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds
  • the introduction into Antarctica of non-indigenous plants and animals
  • entry into specially protected or scientific areas
  • the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters
  • the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica

Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation.

New Zealand

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In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000.[43][44] Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to cooperate with the investigation.[45][46][47]

South Africa

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Under the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962, South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica, and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town.[48] The Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa.[49]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Antarctic Treaty" in The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 439.
  2. ^ a b c d e "Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  3. ^ "ATS – Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty". ats.aq. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
  4. ^ "Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. United Nations. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
  5. ^ "Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  6. ^ a b c Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Beardmore South Field Camp, Antarctica, 7–13 January 1985. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1986. ISBN 0-585-26158-X. OCLC 45730572.
  7. ^ Orrego Vicuna, Francisco (1986). "Antarctic Conflict and International Cooperation". Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Beardmore South Field Camp, Antarctica, 7–13 January 1985. Washington: National Academy Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-309-03640-5.
  8. ^ "Falkland Islands Dependencies (Hope Bay Incident)". Parliament. 20 February 1952.
  9. ^ Whiteman, Marjorie (1963). "Tripartite Naval Declaration". Digest of International Law, Volume 2. U.S. Department of State. p. 1238.
  10. ^ "Historia y Arqueología Marítima. Churchill envió una fragata para repeler la "invasión" de las Malvinas por dos soldados Argentinos en 1953" [Maritime History and Archaeology. Churchill sent a frigate to repel the "invasion" of the Falklands by two Argentine soldiers in 1953.] (in Spanish).
  11. ^ "Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Argentina)". International Court of Justice.
  12. ^ "Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Chile))". International Court of Justice.
  13. ^ Yao, Joanne (2021). "An international hierarchy of science: Conquest, cooperation, and the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System". European Journal of International Relations. 27 (4): 995–1019. doi:10.1177/13540661211033889. S2CID 238807417.
  14. ^ "La Antártica después del año 2048" (in Spanish). El Mostrador. 20 January 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  15. ^ "La Antártica es urgente" (in Spanish). Revista Marina. 24 July 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  16. ^ "Por qué es importante la Antártida para Uruguay con miras al 2048" (in Spanish). El Observador. 21 January 2021. Archived from the original on 6 January 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  17. ^ "In 30 years the Antarctic Treaty becomes modifiable, and the fate of a continent could hang in the balance". The Conversation. 12 July 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  18. ^ "Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources – CCAMLR". ccamlr.org.
  19. ^ "Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of the Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October 1938). ATS 13 of 1938." Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaty Series. Retrieved 15 April 2017
  20. ^ "Treaty between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on cooperation in the maritime areas adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November 2003) – ATS 6 of 2005”. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  21. ^ "Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January 2007) – ATS 1 of 2011”. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  22. ^ "Welcome to the Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty Website". ats.aq.
  23. ^ "List of Meetings". ats.aq. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
  24. ^ a b c "Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Parties". Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  25. ^ "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  26. ^ a b "Antarctic Region". United States Department of State. Retrieved 16 August 2024.
  27. ^ "Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  28. ^ a b c "The Antarctic Treaty System: Introduction" (PDF). United States Department of State. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  29. ^ "Czech Republic: Succession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  30. ^ "Germany: Accession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  31. ^ Johnstone, Rachael Lorna; Jabour, Julia; Tamm, Sune (8 December 2018). "Iceland's Accession to the Antarctic Treaty". The Yearbook of Polar Law Online. 9 (1): 262–281. doi:10.1163/22116427_009010012. ISSN 2211-6427. S2CID 159373678.
  32. ^ "Papua New Guinea: Succession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  33. ^ "Russian Federation: Ratification of Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  34. ^ "San Marino accedes to the Antarctic Treaty". Antarctic Treaty. 22 February 2023. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  35. ^ "Slovakia: Succession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  36. ^ "Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)". Department of International Relations and Cooperation. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
  37. ^ Wright, Minturn, "The Ownership of Antarctica, Its Living and Mineral Resources", Journal of Law and the Environment 4 (1987).
  38. ^ "Dronning Maud Land". Norwegian Polar Institute. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  39. ^ Rapp, Ole Magnus (21 September 2015). "Norge utvider Dronning Maud Land helt frem til Sydpolen". Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway. Retrieved 22 September 2015. …formålet med anneksjonen var å legge under seg det landet som til nå ligger herreløst og som ingen andre enn nordmenn har kartlagt og gransket. Norske myndigheter har derfor ikke motsatt seg at noen tolker det norske kravet slik at det går helt opp til og inkluderer polpunktet.
  40. ^ Jennifer Frakes, The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise? Wisconsin International Law Journal. 2003; 21:409
  41. ^ "Australian Antarctic Division – Australian environmental law and guidelines". Archived from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2007.
  42. ^ (USMS), U.S. Marshals Service. "U.S. Marshals Service". usmarshals.gov. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2006.
  43. ^ Hotere, Andrea. "South Pole death file still open". Sunday Star Times, 17 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  44. ^ Deutsche Presse-Agentur. "Death of Australian astrophysicist an Antarctic whodunnit". Archived 1 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Monstersandcritics.com, 14 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  45. ^ Chapman, Paul. "New Zealand Probes What May Be First South Pole Murder". The Daily Telegraph, (14 December 2006), reprinted in The New York Sun (19 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  46. ^ Booker, Jarrod. "South Pole scientist may have been poisoned". The New Zealand Herald, (14 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  47. ^ "South Pole Death Mystery – Who killed Rodney Marks?" Sunday Star Times (21 January 2007)
  48. ^ Section 2 of the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, No. 55 of 1962, as amended by the Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act, No. 51 of 1997.
  49. ^ Antarctic Treaties Act, No. 60 of 1996.
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