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Mirza Fatali Akhundov

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Mirza Fatali Akhundov,[a] also known as Mirza Fatali Akhundzade, or Mirza Fath-Ali Akhundzadeh (12 July 1812 – 9 March 1878), was a celebrated Iranian Azerbaijani[2] author, playwright, atheist,[2] philosopher, and founder of Azerbaijani modern literary criticism.[3] He became famous mainly for his European-inspired plays written in Azerbaijani.[4]

Mirza Fatali Akhundov
Native name
میرزا فتحعلی آخوندزاده
Born(1812-07-12)12 July 1812
Nukha, Shaki Khanate, Qajar Iran
Died9 March 1878(1878-03-09) (aged 65)
Tiflis, Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire
OccupationPlaywright, philosopher
LanguageAzerbaijani, Persian, Russian[1]

Akhundzade singlehandedly opened a new stage of development of Azerbaijani literature. He was also the founder of the materialist and atheist movement in the Republic of Azerbaijan[5] and one of forerunners of modern Iranian nationalism.[6] He also advocated switching the Azerbaijani writing system from the Perso-Arabic script to the Latin alphabet.

According to the historian and political scientist Zaur Gasimov, the entirety of Akhundzadeh's intellectual landscape was "densely entangled with Persian thought".[7] Akhundzadeh defined his kinsmen as Turki, but at the same time considered Iran his fatherland.[8]

Life

Background and upbringing

Belonging to a relatively wealthy family,[9] Akhundov was born in 1812 in the town of Nukha (present-day Shaki),[10] which served as the capital of the Shaki Khanate.[11] A khanate was a type of administrative unit governed by a hereditary or appointed ruler subject to Iranian rule.[12] During the Russo-Iranian war of 1804–1813, the Shaki Khanate was occupied by the Russian Empire, who had installed Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli as their deputy.[9]

Akhundov's grandfather, Haji Ahmad, originally lived in Rasht in northern Iran before relocating to Tabriz in northwestern Iran. His father Mirza Mohammad-Taqi had previously served as the deputy of the nearby town Khamaneh, but was dismissed by the Qajar crown prince of Iran, Abbas Mirza.[9] Mirza Mohammad-Taqi subsequently became a merchant and relocated to Nukha, where he married Akhundov's mother Na'na Khanum in the same year.[9][13] Her uncle was Akhund Haji Ali Asghar, a Shia clergyman belonging to the Moqaddam family of Maragheh.[14] Akhundov felt a connection to the contemporary Russian poet Alexander Pushkin, due to his mother's lineage, which included an African ancestor who had served under the Iranian shah (king) Nader Shah (r. 1736–1747).[13]

In 1813, Iran and Russia agreed to the Treaty of Gulistan, which resulted in Shaki, along with other territories, coming under Russian rule. The following year, Jafar-Qoli Khan's death led many of the province's inhabitants—who had relied on his support—to migrate elsewhere.[9] In 1814, Akhundov was taken by his parents to Khamaneh.[13] However, Na'na Khanum eventually became dissatisfied with living among the family of Mirza Mohammad-Taqi's first wife, and in 1818, she decided leave Khamaneh, taking Akhundov with her. She went to Meshgin, where her uncle Haji Ali Asghar resided. This marked the last time Akhundov would see his father.[9] Many years later, Akhundov attacked the idea of men having more than one wife as an evil and corrupting practice that not only oppressed women but also caused permanent animosity and friction between the wives and their children.[14]

Akhundov was adopted by Haji Ali Asghar, thus becoming known as "Haji Ali Asgharoglu" or simply "Akhundzade".[14] Haji Ali Asghar was in charge of Akhundov's early education, which included the memorization of the Quran, teaching of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and Arabic and Persian literature.[13] Akhundov first stayed in the village of Hurand with his mother and Haji Ali Asghar. When Akhundov became seven years old the following year, he was registered in a school. In 1825, Akhundov, his mother and Haji Ali Asghar briefly stayed at Nukha before moving to Ganja. Some months later, the Russo-Iranian War of 1826–1828 erupted.[9]

 
The Shah Abbas Mosque in Ganja, where Akhundov studied and met Mirza Shafi Vazeh, who steered him from becoming a Islamic clergyman

Haji Ali Asghar and his family endured difficulties throughout the war, losing their possessions. Following the conclusion of the war and another Iranian defeat, Haji Ali Asghar and his family relocated to Nukha. There he continued teaching Akhundov Arabic and Persian literature.[15] In 1832, Akhundov was sent to the Shah Abbas Mosque in Ganja to study logic and Islamic jurisprudence with the Shia theologian Akhund Molla Hossein. This was arranged by Haji Ali Asghar, who wanted Akhundov to become a Islamic clergyman.[9][15]

Mirza Shafi Vazeh, a mystic, poet, and calligrapher who had been associated with mystical and atheistic ideas, was someone Akhundov encountered while studying in Ganja. Initially, Akhundov planned to learn calligraphy from Mirza Shafi, but their conversations quickly strayed into topics such as Islam, philosophy, mysticism, and the activities of the Shia clergy. Akhundov was adamant on learning Islamic law and jurisprudence in order to become a member of the Shia religious hierarchy, but this changed when he met Mirza Shafi. Akhundov wrote about the impact Mirza Shafi had on him;[15]

"One day, this honourable man [Mirza Shafi], asked me: Mirza Fath Ali what is your intention in studying [Islamic] sciences?' I answered that I wished to become a clergyman. He said, 'Do you wish to become a hypocrite and a charlatan?' I was surprised and shocked . .. Mirza Shafi looked at me and said: Mirza Fath Ali, do not waste your life among this abominable group of people and choose another profession'. When I asked him about the reasons for his hatred of the clergy, he began to reveal matters which until then had remained hidden to me . . . Until the return of my second father from pilgrimage, Mirza Shafi inculcated in me all the elements of mysticism, and lifted the curtain of ignorance from my eyes. After this incident, I began to hate the clergy and I changed my intentions."

Haji Ali Asghar disapproved of his Akhundov's new aspirations and had him moved back to Nukha in 1833.[9][16] Despite this, he still agreed for Akhundov to attend the newly established Russian school there. There Akhundov started learning Russian, but the following year he was forced to stop at the school due to being too old for it.[16]

Later life

In 1834, Akhundzade moved to Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi, Georgia), and spent the rest of his life working as a translator of Oriental languages in the service of the Russian Empire's Viceroyalty. Concurrently, from 1837 onwards he worked as a teacher in the Tbilisi uezd Armenian school, then in the Nersisian School.[//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirza_Fatali_Akhundov#endnote_][1] In Tiflis his acquaintance and friendship with the exiled Russian Decembrists Alexander Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, Vladimir Odoyevsky, poet Yakov Polonsky, Armenian writers Khachatur Abovian,[2] Gabriel Sundukian and others played some part in the formation of Akhundzade's Europeanised outlook.

Akhundzade's first published work was "The Oriental Poem" (1837), a Persian lament on the death of Alexander Pushkin. But the rise of Akhundzade's literary activity comes in the late 1850s. In early 1850s, Akhundzade wrote six comedies (Hekayati Molla Ibrahim-Khalil Kimyagar, The story of Monsieur Jourdan, a botanist and the dervish Mastalishah, a famous sorcerer, Adventures of the Lankaran Khanate Vizier, etc.) – the first comedies in Azerbaijani literature as well as the first samples of the national dramaturgy. The comedies by Akhundzade are unique in their critical pathos and analysis of the realities in Azerbaijan of the first half of the 19th century. These comedies found numerous responses in the Russian other foreign periodical press. The German Magazine of Foreign Literature called Akhundzade a "dramatic genius" and "the Azerbaijani Molière." Akhundzade's sharp pen was directed against everything that he believed hindered the advance of the Russian Empire, which for Akhundzade was a force for modernisation, in spite of the atrocities it committed in its southern advance against Akhundzade's own kin.[17] According to Walter Kolarz:

The greatest Azerbaidzhani poet of the nineteenth century, "Mirza Fathali Akhundov" (1812–78), who is called the "Molière of the Orient", was so completely devoted to the Russian cause that he urged his compatriots to fight Turkey during the Crimean War.[18]

In 1859 Akhundzade published his short but famous novel The Deceived Stars. In this novel he laid the foundation of Azerbaijani realistic historical prose, giving the models of a new genre in Azerbaijani literature. Through his comedies and dramas, Akhundzade established realism as the leading trend in Azerbaijani literature.

According to Ronald Grigor Suny:

Turkish nationalism, which developed in part as a reaction to the nationalism of the Christian minorities [of the Ottoman Empire], was, like Armenian nationalism, heavily influenced by thinkers who lived and were educated in the Russian Empire. The Crimean Tatar Ismail Bey Gasprinski and the Azerbaijani writer Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade inspired Turkish intellectuals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.[19]

According to Tadeusz Swietochowski:

In his glorification of the pre-Islamic greatness of Iran, before it was destroyed at the hands of the "hungry, naked and savage Arabs", "Akhundzade was one of the forerunners of modern Iranian nationalism, and of its militant manifestations at that nor was he devoid of anti-Ottoman sentiments, and in his spirit of the age-long Iranian Ottoman confrontation, he ventured into his writing on the victory of Shah Abbas I over the Turks at Baghdad. Akhundzade is counted as one of the founders of modern Iranian literature, and his formative influence is visible in such major Persian-language writers as Malkum Khan, Mirza Agha Khan and Mirza Abdul-Rahim Talibov Tabrizi. All of them were advocates of reforms in Iran. If Akhundzade had no doubt that his spiritual homeland was Iran, Azerbaijan was the land he grew up and whose language was his native tongue. His lyrical poetry was written in Persian, but his work carries messages of social importance as written in the language of the people of his native land, Azari. With no indication of split-personality, he combined larger Iranian identity with Azerbaijani—he used the term vatan (fatherland) in reference to both."[6]

Reza Zia-Ebrahimi too considers Akhundzade as the founding father of what he calls 'dislocative nationalism' in Iran. According to Zia-Ebrahimi, Akhundzade found inspiration in Orientalist templates to construct a vision of ancient Iran, which offered intellectuals disgruntled with the pace of modernist reform in Iran, a self-serving narrative where all of Iran's shortcomings are blamed on a monolithic and otherized 'other': the Arab. For Zia-Ebrahimi, Akhundzade must be credit with the introduction of ethno-racial ideas, particularly the opposition between the Iranian Aryan and the Arab Semite, into Iran's intellectual debates. Zia-Ebrahimi disputes that Akhundzade had any influence on modernist intellectuals such as Malkum Khan (beyond a common project to reform the Alphabet used to write Persian) or Talibov Tabrizi. His real heir was Kermani, and these two intellectuals' legacy is to be found in the ethnic nationalism of the Pahlavi state, rather than the civic nationalism of the Constitutional movement.[20]

 
Portrait of Mirza Fatali Akhundov by the People's Artist of the USSR Mikayil Abdullayev, National Art Museum of Azerbaijan, 1962

While Akundzadeh is said to have been an atheist, he was very sympathetic to the Zoroastrian religion and was in correspondence with Manekji Limji Hataria.[21][22]

At that time, the Qajar dynasty was in great crisis as a consequence of their failures against the Russian empire and the British, and their corruption and mismanagement.[21] This gave rise to the Constitutional movement. According to these intellectuals Iran needed political change to a constitutional parliamentarian model of governance. But for some intellectuals like Akhundzadeh this was not enough.[21]

He argued that the Arabs and Islam were responsible for the downturn of Iranian civilisation and argued that Iranians should look back to their glorious pre-Islamic civilisation. In the Maktubàt-e Kamàl od-Dowleh beh Shàhzadeh Jamàl od-Dowleh (Letters from Kamal od-Dowleh to Prince Jalal od-Dowleh, 1860, hereafter Maktubàt) his vision on the glorious pre-islamic past is portrayed. Just like Jalal ed-Din Mirza Qajar, with whom he corresponded, he argued that Arabic loan words, alphabet and Islam should be removed. If this is accomplished, then according to him Iran can return to its glorious state. He was the first to compile these ideas into a coherent nationalist ideology, which makes him the father of Iranian nationalism. Akhundzadeh was also an atheist, but he made an exception for Zoroastrianism, which he saw as a great religion and the true Iranian religion. He hoped that it would one day replace Islam again and so tried to promote it with his Maktubàt.[21]

The "Sultans of Islam" will be "kinder to your kin than to their own brother and father". They "will deplore the fact that they did not know you until today and that throughout the history of Islam they have supported and admired Arabs, who are their enemies ... who destroyed their country", rather than Zoroastrians who are "their brothers, who speak the same language [sic], their compatriots, the living memory of their glorious forefathers, and their guardian angels".[21]

Akhundzadeh was under the spell of what seems to be Manekji's archaistic charisma, a sort of magnetism stemming from the special knowledge of the glorious past that he was perceived to possess. Akhundzadeh put him on a pedestal because he saw him as an emissary of this Golden Age for which he and Jalal ed-Din Mirza longed, as if Manekji had just walked out of a time machine. In another letter, this admiration of Manekji becomes more evident: "my wish is that . . .Iranians knew that we are the children of the Parsis, that our home is Iran, that zeal, honour, idealism and our celestial aspirations demand that we favour our kin, rather than alien bloodthirsty bandits" (Akhundzadeh to Manekji, 29 July 1871, in Mohammadzadeh and Arasli 1963:249, emphasis added). It is very revealing that Akhundzadeh called Iranians the "children" of the Parsis. He accorded Parsis a genealogical ascendancy that can only be explained by the fact that he considered them as a kind of pure Iranians uncontaminated by Arabs and Islam, who should be "followed" by the contemporary debased Muslim lot. He then added that "my appearance is that of a Turk, but I am of the Parsis' race".[21]

In the 1920s, the Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre was named after Akhundzade.

Iranian nationalism

Akhundzade identified himself as belonging to the nation of Iran (mellat-e Iran) and to the Iranian homeland (vatan). He corresponded with Jalal al-Din Mirza (a minor Qajar prince, son of Bahman Mirza Qajar,1826–70) and admired this latter's epic Nameh-ye Khosrovan (Book of sovereigns), which was an attempt to offer the modern reader biographies of Iran's ancient kings, real and mythical, without recourse to any Arabic loanword. The Nameh presented the pre-Islamic past as one of grandeur, and the advent of Islam as a radical rupture.[23]

Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani (1854–96) was one of Akhundzade's disciples. Three decades later he endeavoured to disseminate Akhundzade's thought while also significantly strengthening its racial content. Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani also followed Jalal-al-Din Mirza in producing a national history of Iran, A'ine-ye sekandari (The Alexandrian mirror), extending from the mythological past to the Qajar era, again to contrast a mythicised and fantasised pre-Islamic past with a present that falls short of nationalist expectations.[24]

Alphabet reform

 
Project of new Latin-Cyrillic alphabet by Akhundov

Akhundzade was a keen advocate for alphabet reform, considering the Perso-Arabic script inadequate for representing Turkic sounds. He began his work on alphabet reform in 1850. His first efforts focused on modifying the Perso-Arabic script so that it would more adequately satisfy the phonetic requirements of the Azerbaijani language. First, he insisted that each sound be represented by a separate symbol with no duplications or omissions. The Perso-Arabic script expresses only three vowel sounds, whereas Azeri needs to identify nine vowels. Later, he openly advocated the change from Perso-Arabic to a modified Latin alphabet. The Latin script which was used in Azerbaijan between 1922 and 1939, and the Latin script which is used now, were based on Akhundzade's third version.

Family

Akhundov married Tubu Khanum, his mother's cousin, in 1842. He had 13 children, of whom only two (Nisa and Rashid) reached maturity. His second marriage was to Nazli Beyim, a descendant of Javad Khan, with whom he fathered Sayrabayim. He married off both Nisa and Sayrabayim to Khan Baba Mirza from the Bahmani family. His grandson Fatali was purged in 1938.

Legacy

 
Akhundov Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theater

Besides his role in Azerbaijani literature and Iranian nationalism, Akhundzadeh was also known for his harsh criticisms of religions (mainly Islam) and stays as the most iconic Azerbaijani atheist.[25] National Library of Azerbaijan and Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre, as well as a couple of streets, parks, and libraries, are also named after Akhundzade in Azerbaijan. A cultural museum in Tbilisi, Georgia that focuses on Georgian-Azerbaijani cultural relations is also named after him.

Punik, a village in Armenia, was also named in Akhundzade's honor until very recently. TURKSOY hosted a groundbreaking ceremony to declare 2012 as the year of Mirza Fatali Akhundzade.

House museum

House Museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov
Mirzə Fətəli Axundovun ev muzeyi
 
House Museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov
July 30, 2015
 
Established1940
Location  Shaki
  Azerbaijan
Coordinates41°12′11″N 47°11′49″E / 41.20306°N 47.19694°E / 41.20306; 47.19694

Mirza Fatali Akhundov's house museum is located in Shaki. Akhundov was born in this house and spent his childhood and adolescence here. This museum is also the first memorial museum opened in Azerbaijan.[26]

History

The house was built in 1800. In 1811, it was taken by Mirza Fatali Akhundov's father Mirza Mohammad Taghi. Mirza Fatali Akhundov was born here in 1812. Two years later, Akhundov's father moved with his family to Khamna village near Tabriz. Mirza Fatali's parents divorced when he was 13 years old. Later, in 1825, Akhundov returned to Shaki with his family. From this period, his mother's uncle Akhund Haji Alasgar began to take care of him. In 1833 he entered the Russian school opened in Shaki, and after studying there for a year he went to Tbilisi in 1834. In 1940, a museum was established in this house. In 2012, in honor of the 200th anniversary of Akhundov, the museum was overhauled.[26]

Description

The museum consisted of two small interlocking rooms. There is another building near the house. It was built later and an exposition on the life and work of the great writer was created here. M. F. Akhundov's house museum consists of 2 buildings, an exposition hall dedicated to his life and work and the house where Akhundov was born.[26]

The house was built of raw brick in the Shaki architectural tradition around 1800 and consists of two rooms, a balcony and a basement. There is a wooden structure between the floors. The stove also shows that the building was built in an oriental style. Antiques are exhibited in the rooms. In the past, there were stone and brick walls in the yard, a brick arched gate in the eastern style, and another two-storey, basement house made of raw bricks belonging to Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh's cousins.[27]

The Exposition Hall was built in 1975. The house-museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh was repaired in 2011–2012. The museum displays 248 exhibits.[28]

Photos

Bibliography

Major works:

  • Комедии Мирзы Фетъ-Али-Ахундова (Comedies of Mirza Fatali Akhundov). Tiflis, 1853.
  • Tamsīlāt-i Kaputan Mīrzā Fath-ʿAlī Āḵūndzāda (Collection of plays of Mirza Fatali Akhundzade). Tiflis, 1860.

Works on literary criticism:

  • Qirītīkah (Criticism)
  • Risālah-i īrād (Fault-finding treatise)
  • Fann-i kirītīkah (Art of criticism)
  • Darbārah-i Mullā-yi Rūmī va tasnīf-i ū (On Rumi and his work)
  • Darbārah-i nazm va nasr (On verse and prose)
  • Fihrist-i kitāb (Preface to the book)
  • Maktūb bih Mīrzā Āqā Tabrīzī (Letter to Mīrzā Āqā Tabrīzī)
  • Uṣūl-i nigārish (Principles of writing)

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    • Azerbaijani: میرزا فتحعلی آخوندزاده
    • Persian: میرزا فتحعلی آخوندزاده
    • Russian: Мирза́ Фатали́ Аху́ндов

References

  1. ^ Heß, Michael R. (2015). "Axundzadə, Mirzə Fətəli". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_2482. ISSN 1873-9830.
  2. ^ a b *ĀḴŪNDZĀDA ĀḴŪNDZĀDA (in Soviet usage, AKHUNDOV), MĪRZĀ FATḤ-ʿALĪ (1812–78), Azerbaijani playwright and propagator of alphabet reform; also, one of the earliest and most outspoken atheists to appear in the Islamic world. According to his own autobiographical account (first published in Kaškūl, Baku, 1887, nos. 43–45, and reprinted in M.F. Akhundov, Alefbā-ye ǰadīd va maktūbāt, ed. H. Moḥammadzāda and Ḥ. Ārāslī, Baku, 1963, pp. 349–55), Āḵūndzāda was born in 1812 (other documents give 1811 and 1814) in the town of Nūḵa, in the part of Azerbaijan that was annexed by Russia in 1828. His father, Mīrzā Moḥammad-Taqī, had been kadḵodā of Ḵāmena, a small town about fifty kilometers to the west of Tabrīz, but he later turned to trade and, crossing the Aras river, settled in Nūḵa, where in 1811 he took a second wife. One year later, she gave birth to Mīrzā Fatḥ-ʿAlī. Āḵūndzāda’s mother was descended from an African who had been in the service of Nāder Shah, and consciousness of this African element in his ancestry served to give Āḵūndzāda a feeling of affinity with his great Russian contemporary, Pushkin.
    • "Nineteenth-century Iranian intellectuals, such as Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzadeh and Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani (...)" -- Aghaie, Kamran Scot; Marashi, Afshin (2014). Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity. University of Texas Press
    • "(...) exemplifies the centrality of the ideal of improving on existing institutions for Akhundzadeh and other nineteenth-century Iranian intellectuals. (...) As a native speaker of Azeri who published both in Persian and Azeri." -- Litvak, Meir, ed. (2017) Constructing Nationalism in Iran: From the Qajars to the Islamic Republic. Routledge. p. 43
    • Russian Azerbaijan (1905–1920): the shaping of a national identity in a Muslim community. Cambridge University Press, Boston, 1985.
    For example, Mirza Fath Ali Akhundov, the Azerbaijani best known in the West, will be referred to as Akhundzada, the form of his name that has been used for a century in publications outside of Russia.
    • "Āk̲h̲und-Zāda, mīrzā fatḥ ʿalī (181–78) was the first writer of original plays in a Turkish idiom. The son of a trader who hailed from Persian Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān, he was born in 1811 (according to Caferoǧlu) or 1812 (according to the Soviet Encyclopaedia, 1950) in S̲h̲ēkī, the present-day Nūk̲h̲ā. -- Brands, H.W., Āk̲h̲und-Zāda, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs
    • "This was no doubt also the reason why Fath'ali Akhundzadeh (d. 1878), the Azerbaijani Iranian who was a subject of the Russian Empire and lived in Georgia, launched an attack on Sa'adi in his general onslaught on Persian poetry. He was perhaps, the first nationalist and modernist Iranian intellectual, and he rejected virtually the whole of post-Islamic Iranian culture, romantically glorified the legacy of ancient Persia, and wished to turn Iran into a Western-European style country overnight. -- Katouzian, Homa (2006). Saʿdī: The Poet of Life, Love and Compassion. One world Publications. p. 3
    • " The intellectual forerunners of romantic nationalism included Mirzā Fatḥ-ʿAli Āḵundzāda, Jalāl-al-Din Mirzā Qājār, and Mirzā Āqā Khan Kermāni (qq.v.). They introduced the basic ideals of the autonomy, the unity, and the prosperity of the Iranian nation with patriotic devotion." -- Ashraf, Ahmad (2006). IRANIAN IDENTITY iv. 19TH-20TH CENTURIES. Vol. XIII, Fasc. 5, pp. 522–530
    • Kolarz W. Russian and Her Colonies. London. 1953. pp. 244–245
  3. ^ Parsinejad, Iraj. A History of Literary Criticism in Iran (1866–1951). He lived in the Russian Empire. Bethesda, MD: Ibex, 2003. p. 44.
  4. ^ Millar, James R. (2004). Encyclopedia of Russian History. MacMillan Reference USA. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-02-865694-6.
  5. ^ M. Iovchuk (ed.) et el. The Philosophical and Sociological Thought of the Peoples of the USSR in the 19th Century. Moscow: Mysl, 1971.
  6. ^ a b Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition (New York: Columbia University Press), 1995, pp. 27–28:
  7. ^ Gasimov, Zaur (2022). "Observing Iran from Baku: Iranian Studies in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan". Iranian Studies. 55 (1): 38. doi:10.1080/00210862.2020.1865136. S2CID 233889871.
  8. ^ Yilmaz, Harun (2013). "The Soviet Union and the Construction of Azerbaijani National Identity in the 1930s". Iranian Studies. 46 (4): 513. doi:10.1080/00210862.2013.784521. S2CID 144322861.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i Molavi 2018.
  10. ^ Zia-Ebrahimi 2016, p. 44.
  11. ^ Bournoutian 2021, p. 254.
  12. ^ Bournoutian 1976, p. 23.
  13. ^ a b c d Algar 2020.
  14. ^ a b c Kia 1998, p. 2.
  15. ^ a b c Kia 1995, p. 423.
  16. ^ a b Kia 1995, p. 424.
  17. ^ Zia-Ebrahimi 2016, pp. 141–45.
  18. ^ Kolarz, W. (1967). Russia and her Colonies. Hamden, CT: Archon Books. pp. 244–245. OCLC 1200139.
  19. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1993). Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Indiana State University. p. 25.
  20. ^ Zia-Ebrahimi 2016.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Zia-Ebrahimi, Reza (2010). "An Emissary of the Golden Age: Manekji Limji Hataria and the Charisma of the Archaic in Pre-Nationalist Iran". Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism. 10 (3): 377–390. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9469.2011.01091.x. ISSN 1754-9469.
  22. ^ Ringer, Monica M. "Iranian Nationalism and Zoroastrian Identity: Between Cyrus and Zoroaster". In Amanat, Abbas; Vejdani, Farzin (eds.). Iran Facing Others. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137013408_13. ISBN 978-1-349-28689-8.
  23. ^ Zia-Ebrahimi 2016, pp. 36–38.
  24. ^ Ashraf, AHMAD. "IRANIAN IDENTITY iv. 19TH-20TH CENTURIES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  25. ^ Ахундов М. Ф. – Великие люди – Атеисты
  26. ^ a b c "Böyük dramaturqun ziyarətçisiz ev muzeyi". news.milli.az. May 20, 2013. Archived from the original on November 8, 2013. Retrieved February 19, 2021.
  27. ^ "M.F.Axundovun ev muzeyi". sheki.heritage.org.az. Archived from the original on April 15, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2021.
  28. ^ "Şəkidə M.F.Axundzadənin ev-muzeyi". anl.az. Archived from the original on March 5, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2021.

Sources

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