Wikipedia

Hydrogen infrastructure

(Redirected from Hydrogen highway)

A hydrogen infrastructure is the infrastructure of hydrogen pipeline transport, points of hydrogen production and hydrogen stations for distribution as well as the sale of hydrogen fuel,[1] and thus a crucial prerequisite before a successful commercialization of fuel cell technology.[2]

Hydrogen pipelines
Hydrogen gasification plant for Belinka Perkemija [sl], 2015

The hydrogen infrastructure would consist mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations. Hydrogen stations which were not situated near a hydrogen pipeline would get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.

Pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances compared to other options. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to hydrocrack fuels from crude oil. The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and existing natural gas pipelines for transport: also international co-operation and shipping.[3]

South Korea and Japan,[4] which as of 2019 lack international electrical interconnectors, are investing in the hydrogen economy.[5] In March 2020, the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field was opened in Japan, claiming to be the world's largest hydrogen production facility.[6] Much of the site is occupied by a solar array; power from the grid is also used for electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen fuel.[7]

Network

edit

Hydrogen highways

edit

A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped filling stations and other infrastructure along a road or highway which allow hydrogen vehicles to travel.

Hydrogen stations

edit

Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Some firms as ITM Power are also providing solutions to make your own hydrogen (for use in the car) at home.[8] Government supported activities to expand an hydrogen fuel infrastructure are ongoing in the US state of California, in some member states of the European Union (most notably in Germany[2]) and in particular in Japan.

Hydrogen pipeline transport

edit

Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of hydrogen production or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, pipeline transport costs are similar to CNG,[9] the technology is proven,[10] however most hydrogen is produced on the place of demand with every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) an industrial production facility.[11] As of 2004, there are 900 miles (1,448 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and 930 miles (1,497 km) in Europe.

According to a 2024 research report, the United States has 1,600 miles (2,570 kilometers) of hydrogen pipelines; the global total stands at 2,800 miles (4,500 kilometers).[12] The World Economic Forum, in December 2023, estimated that Europe had approximately 1,600 kilometers of hydrogen pipelines.[13]

Hydrogen embrittlement (a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogen embrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas, however, is molecular (H2), and there is a very significant energy barrier to splitting it into atoms.[14]

Buffer for renewable energy

edit

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory believes that US counties have the potential to produce more renewable hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles than the gasoline they consumed in 2002.[15]

As an energy buffer, hydrogen produced via water electrolysis and in combination with underground hydrogen storage or other large-scale storage technologies, could play an important role for the introduction of fluctuating renewable energy sources like wind or solar power.[2]

Hydrogen production plants

edit

98% of hydrogen production uses the steam reforming method.[16] Methods such as electrolysis of water are also used.[17] The world's largest facility for producing electrolytic hydrogen fuel is claimed[18] to be the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R), a 10MW-class hydrogen production unit, inaugurated on 7 March 2020, in Namie, Fukushima Prefecture.[19] The site occupies 180,000 square meters of land, much of which is occupied by a solar array; but power from the grid is also used to conduct electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen fuel.[18]

Hydrogen pipeline transport

edit

Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure.

History

edit

Economics

edit
 

Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand. Although hydrogen pipeline transport is technologically mature,[24][25] and the transport costs are similar to those of CNG,[26] most hydrogen is produced in the place of demand, with an industrial production facility every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km)[27]

Piping

edit

For process metal piping at pressures up to 7,000 psi (48 MPa), high-purity stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80 HRB is preferred.[28] This is because higher hardnesses are associated with lower fracture toughness so stronger, higher hardness steel is less safe.

Composite pipes are assessed like:

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer pipelines (or FRP pipeline) and reinforced thermoplastic pipes are researched.[29][30][31][32]

Carrying hydrogen in steel pipelines (grades: API5L-X42 and X52; up to 1,000psi/7,000kPa, constant pressure/low pressure cycling) does not lead to hydrogen embrittlement.[33] Hydrogen is typically stored in steel cylinders without problems. Coal gas (also known as town gas) is 50% hydrogen and was carried in cast-iron pipes for half a century without any embrittlement issues.

Infrastructure

edit
 
  • 2024: USA – 1,600 mi (2,600 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines[12]
  • 2024: Europe – 1,600 km (990 mi) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines.[13]

Hydrogen highway

edit

A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped public filling stations, along a road or highway, that allows hydrogen powered cars to travel.[34] William Clay Ford Jr. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors (also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes) that hold back the marketability of fuel cell cars.[3]

Supply issues, cost and pollution

edit

Hydrogen fueling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by tanker truck from hydrogen suppliers.[35] An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fueling stations.[36] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.[37]

As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[16] The bulk of hydrogen is also transported in trucks, so pollution is emitted in its transportation.[35]

Hydrogen station

edit
 
Hydrogen fueling pump

A hydrogen station is a storage or filling station for hydrogen fuel.[38] The hydrogen is dispensed by weight.[39][40] There are two filling pressures in common use: H70 or 700 bar, and the older standard H35 or 350 bar.[41] As of 2021, around 550 filling stations were available worldwide.[41] According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), as of the end of 2023, there were 921 hydrogen refueling stations globally,[42] although this number clearly conflicts with those published by AFDC.[43] The distribution of these stations is highly uneven, with a concentration in East Asia, particularly in China, Japan and South Korea; Central Europe and California in the United States. Other regions have very few, if any, hydrogen refuelling stations.[42][43]

Delivery methods

edit

Hydrogen fueling stations can be divided into off-site stations, where hydrogen is delivered by truck or pipeline, and on-site stations that produce and compress hydrogen for the vehicles.[44][45]

Types of recharging stations

edit

Home hydrogen fueling station

edit

Home hydrogen fueling stations are available to consumers.[46] A model that can produce 12 kilograms of hydrogen per day sells for $325,000.[47]

Solar powered water electrolysing hydrogen home stations are composed of solar cells, power converter, water purifier, electrolyzer, piping, hydrogen purifier,[48] oxygen purifier, compressor,[49] pressure vessels[50] and a hydrogen outlet.[51]

Disadvantages

edit

Volatility

edit

Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of its low ignition energy, high combustion energy, and because it easily leaks from tanks.[52] Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.[53]

Supply

edit

Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations due to an interruption of the supply of hydrogen.[54]

Costs

edit
See also: Hydrogen fuel

There are far fewer Hydrogen filling stations than gasoline fuel stations, which in the US alone numbered 168,000 in 2004.[55] Replacing the US gasoline infrastructure with hydrogen fuel infrastructure is estimated to cost a half trillion U.S. dollars.[56] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.[57] In comparison, battery electric vehicles can charge at home or at public chargers. As of 2023, there are more than 60,000 public charging stations in the United States, with more than 160,000 outlets.[43] A public Level 2 charger, which comprise the majority of public chargers in the US, costs about $2,000, and DC fast chargers, of which there are more than 30,000 in the U.S.,[43] generally cost between $100,000 and $250,000,[58] although Tesla superchargers are estimated to cost approximately $43,000.[59]

Freezing of the nozzle

edit

During refueling, the flow of cold hydrogen can cause frost to form on the dispenser nozzle, sometimes leading to the nozzle becoming frozen to the vehicle being refueled.[60]

Locations

edit

Consulting firm Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik tracks global hydrogen filling stations and publishes a map.[61]

Asia

edit

In 2019, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation.[62]

 
Hydrogen station in Ariake, Tokyo

As of May 2023, there are 167 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in Japan.[63][64] In 2012 there were 17 hydrogen stations,[65] and in 2021, there were 137 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Japan.[41]

By the end of 2023, China had built 354 hydrogen refueling stations.[66]

In 2019, there were 33 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in South Korea.[62][67] In November 2023, however, due to hydrogen supply problems and broken stations, most fueling stations in South Korea offered no hydrogen.[68] 41 out of the 159 hydrogen stations in the country were listed as open, and some of these were rationing supplies of hydrogen.[69]

Europe

edit

In 2019, there were 177 stations in Europe.[62][70][71] According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), there were 265 hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe by the end of 2023.[42]

As of June 2023, there were 105 hydrogen fuel stations in Germany,[42] As of June 2023, there were 5 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in France,[70] 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Iceland,[70] one publicly available hydrogen fuel station in Italy,[70] 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in The Netherlands,[70] 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Belgium,[70] 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden,[70] 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Switzerland[70] and 6 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Denmark.[70] Everfuel, the only operator of hydrogen stations in Denmark, announced in 2023 the closure of all of its public hydrogen stations in the country.[72][73]

As of June 2021, there were 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Norway, both in the Oslo area.[74] Since the explosion at the hydrogen filling station in Sandvika in June 2019, the sale of hydrogen cars in Norway has halted.[75] In 2023, Everfuel announced the closure of its two public hydrogen stations in Norway and cancelled the opening of a third.[72] In 2024 Shell discontinued its hydrogen fuel projects in Norway.[76]

As of June 2020, there were 11 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in the United Kingdom,[70] but as of 2023, the number decreased to 5.[77] In 2022, Shell closed its three hydrogen stations in the UK,[78]

North America

edit
Canada
edit

As of July 2023, there were 10 fueling stations in Canada, 9 of which were open to the public:

  • British Columbia: Five stations are in the Greater Vancouver Area and Vancouver Island, with one station in Kelowna. All six stations are operated by HTEC (co-branded with Shell and Esso).[79]
  • Ontario: One station in Mississauga is operated by Hydrogenics Corporation. The station is only available to certain commercial customers.[80]
  • Quebec: Three stations in the Greater Montreal area are operated by Shell, and one station in Quebec City is operated by Harnois Énergies (co-branded with Esso).[80]
United States
edit

As of July 2024, there were 54 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 53 of which were located in California, with one in Hawaii.[43]

  • California: As of March 2024, there were 53 retail stations.[43] Continued state funding for hydrogen refueling stations is uncertain.[81] In September 2023, Shell announced that it had closed its hydrogen stations in the state and discontinued plans to build further stations.[82] In 2024 it was reported that "a majority of the hydrogen stations in Southern California are offline or operating with reduced hours" due to hydrogen shortages and unreliable station performance.[83]
  • Hawaii opened its first hydrogen station at Hickam in 2009.[84][85] In 2012, the Aloha Motor Company opened a hydrogen station in Honolulu.[86] As of April 2023, however, only one publicly accessible station was in operation in Hawaii.[43]
  • Michigan: In 2000, the Ford Motor Company and Air Products & Chemicals opened the first hydrogen station in North America in Dearborn, MI.[87] As of November 2023, no publicly accessible stations were in operation in Michigan.[43]

Oceania

edit

In 2021, the first Australian publicly available hydrogen fuel station opened in Canberra, operated by ActewAGL.[88]

Hydrogen tank

edit
 
A hydrogen tank on a Honda FCX platform

A hydrogen tank (other names- cartridge or canister) is used for hydrogen storage.[89][90][91] The first type IV hydrogen tanks for compressed hydrogen at 700 bars (70 MPa; 10,000 psi) were demonstrated in 2001, the first fuel cell vehicles on the road with type IV tanks are the Toyota FCHV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell and the GM HydroGen4.

Low-pressure tanks

edit

Various applications have allowed the development of different H2 storage scenarios. Recently, the Hy-Can[92] consortium has introduced a small one liter, 10 bars (1.0 MPa; 150 psi) format. Horizon Fuel Cells is now selling a refillable 3 megapascals (30 bar; 440 psi) metal hydride form factor for consumer use called HydroStik.[93]

Type I

edit
  • Metal tank (steel/aluminum)
  • Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum 175 bars (17.5 MPa; 2,540 psi), steel 200 bars (20 MPa; 2,900 psi).

Type II

edit

Type III

edit
  • Tanks made from composite material, fiberglass/aramid or carbon fiber with a metal liner (aluminum or steel).
  • Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum/glass 305 bars (30.5 MPa; 4,420 psi), aluminum/aramid 438 bars (43.8 MPa; 6,350 psi), aluminium/carbon 700 bars (70 MPa; 10,000 psi).

Type IV

edit
 
Hydrogen tanks for the Toyota Mirai.

Type V

edit
  • All-composite, linerless tank. Composites Technology Development (Colorado, USA) built a prototype tank for a satellite application in 2010 although it had an operating pressure of only 200 psi and was used to store argon.[96]
  • Approximate maximum pressure: 1,000 bars (100 MPa; 15,000 psi).

Tank testing and safety considerations

edit
Main article: Hydrogen safety

In accordance with ISO/TS 15869 (revised):

  • Burst test: the pressure at which the tank bursts, typically more than 2× the working pressure.
  • Proof pressure: the pressure at which the test will be executed, typically above the working pressure.
  • Leak test or permeation test,[97] in NmL/hr/L (Normal liter of H2/time in hr/volume of the tank.)
  • Fatigue test, typically several thousand cycles of charging/emptying.
  • Bonfire test where the tank is exposed to an open fire.
  • Bullet test where live ammunition is fired at the tank.

This specification was replaced by ISO 13985:2006 and only applies to liquid hydrogen tanks.

Actual Standard EC 79/2009

  • U.S. Department of Energy maintains a hydrogen safety best practices site with a lot of information about tanks and piping.[98] They dryly observe "Hydrogen is a very small molecule with low viscosity, and therefore prone to leakage.".[99]

Metal hydride storage tank

edit

Magnesium hydride

edit

Using magnesium[100] for hydrogen storage, a safe but weighty reversible storage technology. Typically the pressure requirement are limited to 10 bars (1.0 MPa; 150 psi). The charging process generates heat whereas the discharge process will require some heat to release the H2 contained in the storage material. To activate these types of hydrides, at the current state of development you need to reach approximately 300 °C (572 °F). [101] [102] [103]

Other hydrides

edit

See also sodium aluminium hydride

Research

edit
  • 2008 - Japan, a clay-based film sandwiched between prepregs of CFRP.[104]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ "Hydrogen infrastructure project launches in USA". 14 May 2013.
  2. ^ a b c Eberle, Ulrich; Mueller, Bernd; von Helmolt, Rittmar. "Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012". Energy & Environmental Science. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
  3. ^ IEA H2 2019, p. 15
  4. ^ "Japan's Hydrogen Strategy and Its Economic and Geopolitical Implications". Etudes de l'Ifri. Archived from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  5. ^ "South Korea's Hydrogen Economy Ambitions". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  6. ^ "The world's largest-class hydrogen production, Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) now is completed at Namie town in Fukushima". Toshiba Energy Press Releases. Toshiba Energy Systems and Solutions Corporations. 7 March 2020. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  7. ^ Patel, Sonal (1 July 2022). "Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field Demonstrates Hydrogen Integration". POWER Magazine. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
  8. ^ Running on home-brewed hydrogen
  9. ^ Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop
  11. ^ Every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) Archived 20 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ a b "Critical Review of ASME B31.12 for Pipeline Transmission of Hydrogen". EPRI. 30 April 2024. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  13. ^ a b "Energy Transition Hydrogen pipelines are making progress around the world. These countries are leading the way". World Economic Forum. 13 December 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  14. ^ Bhadhesia, Harry. "Prevention of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Steels" (PDF). Phase Transformations & Complex Properties Research Group, Cambridge University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  15. ^ Milibrand, A. and Mann, M. “Potential for Hydrogen Production from Key Renewable Resources in the United States”. “National Renewable Energy Laboratory”, February 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
  16. ^ a b "Realising the hydrogen economy" Archived 5 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Power Technology, October 11, 2019
  17. ^ Dincer, Ibrahim; Acar, Canan (2015). "Review and evaluation of hydrogen production methods for better sustainability". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 40 (34): 11096. Bibcode:2015IJHE...4011094D. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.12.035. ISSN 0360-3199.
  18. ^ a b "The world´s largest-class hydrogen production, Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) now is completed at Namie town in Fukushima". Toshiba Energy Press Releases. Toshiba Energy Systems and Solutions Corporations. 7 March 2020. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  19. ^ "Opening Ceremony of Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) Held with Prime Minister Abe and METI Minister Kajiyama". METI News Releases. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. 9 March 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  20. ^ "The Technological Steps of Hydrogen Introduction - pag 24" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  21. ^ "rise.org - Pipelines". Archived from the original on 28 July 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  22. ^ 2006 - vector of clean energy - pag 15 Archived 2008-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ^ Hydrogen Pipeline Extension Strengthens Gulf Coast Network Archived 2009-03-16 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ 2005 DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ "Natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2024. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  26. ^ 2006 - Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines Deliver Large-scale Stranded Renewable Energy at Competitive Cost - 16th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Lyon, 13–16 June 2006 Archived 2012-02-10 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ Every 50 to 100 miles Archived 2007-08-20 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^ Idaho national Engineering Laboratory Recommendations for Piping for Gaseous Hydrogen Archived 2012-09-16 at Archive-It Accessed 2010-10-13
  29. ^ "2007 - Fiber Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Pipelines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  30. ^ "NEW, COMPOSITE POLYMERIC/METALLIC MATERIALS AND DESIGNS FOR HYDROGEN PIPELINES" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  31. ^ "2006 FRP Hydrogen Pipelines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  32. ^ "Lifetime Simulation Composite & Multilayer Pipelines". Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
  33. ^ "Hydrogen Pipelines Working Group Workshop - Proceedings" (PDF). USA Dept of Energy. DoE. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  34. ^ Al-Ahmed, Amir, Safdar Hossain, Bello Mukhtar et al. "Hydrogen highway: An overview", IEEE.org, December 2010
  35. ^ a b "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing" Archived 1 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Protium.aero, May 2, 2016
  36. ^ Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019
  37. ^ Kurtz, Jennifer; Sprik, Sam; Bradley, Thomas H. (2019). "Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 44 (23). National Renewable Energy Laboratory: 12010–12023. Bibcode:2019IJHE...4412010K. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  38. ^ Apostolou, D.; Xydis, G. (2019). "A literature review on hydrogen refuelling stations and infrastructure. Current status and future prospects" (PDF). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 113: 109292. Bibcode:2019RSERv.11309292A. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109292. S2CID 201240559.
  39. ^ "LA gas station gets hydrogen fuel pump". NBC News. 27 June 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  40. ^ "SAE International -- mobility engineering". Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  41. ^ a b c Can Samsun, Remzi; Antoni, Laurent; Rex, Michael; Stolten, Detlef (2021). "Deployment Status of Fuel Cells in Road Transport: 2021 Update" (PDF). International Energy Agency (IEA) Advanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme (AFC TCP). Forschungszentrum Jülich.
  42. ^ a b c d Chris Randall (2 January 2024). "Infrastructure 37 new H2 refuelling stations built in Europe in 2023". Electrive.com. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g h Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State, Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed July 4, 2024.
  44. ^ "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing" Archived 1 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Protium.aero, May 2, 2016
  45. ^ Another off-site concept, by Bioenergy Concept GmbH, which has not been commercialized, involves filling hydrogen in cartridges and transporting them to a filling station, where the empty cartridges are replaced with new ones. See "Bioenergy Concept GmbH - Your Expert for Bioenergy Projects". Bioenergy Concept GmbH. Retrieved 8 April 2022. and "Patent für Wasserstofftankstelle". It is hoped that this process would save about 33% of energy (Kwh/KgH2) used by conventional transportation. See "DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record" (PDF).
  46. ^ Hydrogenics HomeFueler as a home hydrogen fueling station; Simple.fuel as a home hydrogen fueling station; Ivys Energy Solutions simple.fuel; and Home hydrogen fueling station term
  47. ^ "SHFA Model 300", Millennium Reign Energy, accessed April 26, 2023
  48. ^ "Hydrogen Purification" (PDF). Home Power. 67: 42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2006.
  49. ^ "Diaphragm Compressors". Pressure Products Industries, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 September 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2007.
  50. ^ See, for example, Lincoln Composites Tuffshell tanks Archived 2007-06-04 at the Wayback Machine, as recommended by Roy McAlister in the "Hydrogen Car and Multi Fuel Engine" DVD
  51. ^ "Solar Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis" (PDF). Home Power. 39. February–March 1994. Retrieved 23 June 2007.
  52. ^ Utgikar, Vivek P; Thiesen, Todd (2005). "Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles". Technology in Society. 27 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005.
  53. ^ Dobson, Geoff (12 June 2019). "Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt". EV Talk.
  54. ^ Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019
  55. ^ "How many gas stations are there in the U.S?". Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  56. ^ Romm, Joseph (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate. New York: Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-703-9. Chapter 5
  57. ^ Kurtz, Jennifer; Sprik, Sam; Bradley, Thomas H. (2019). "Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 44 (23). National Renewable Energy Laboratory: 12010–12023. Bibcode:2019IJHE...4412010K. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027. S2CID 132085841. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  58. ^ Hawkins, Andrew J. "Volvo and ChargePoint will build EV charging stations at Starbucks in 5 states", The Verge, March 15, 2022
  59. ^ Lambert, Fred. "Tesla's Supercharger cost revealed to be just one-fifth of the competition in losing home state bid", Electrek, April 15, 2022
  60. ^ "NREL Research into Fueling Big Rigs Could Help More Hydrogen Vehicles Hit the Road". Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  61. ^ "Hydrogen Filling Stations Worldwide - H2-Stations - netinform". Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  62. ^ a b c "In 2019: 83 New Hydrogen Refuelling Stations Worldwide". FuelCellsWorks. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  63. ^ "2023年度水素ステーション整備計画を策定" [Formulation of a hydrogen station development plan for FY2023]. JHyM (in Japanese). 17 May 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  64. ^ "5 new HRS to be installed in fiscal 2023" (PDF). JHyM. 17 May 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  65. ^ "fuelcellinsider.org - Index". Archived from the original on 15 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  66. ^ Polly Martin (21 March 2024). "'China is the world leader in hydrogen refuelling stations, but it is still way behind its 2025 targets': analyst". Hydrogeninsight. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  67. ^ Phate Zhang (1 July 2021). "China has built 118 hydrogen refueling stations". CnEVPost.
  68. ^ Barnard, Michael. "Hydrogen Refueling Station Closures in Multiple Countries More Painful News for Hydrogen Proponents", CleanTechnica, February 8, 2024
  69. ^ Martin, Polly. "Three quarters of hydrogen refuelling stations in South Korea closed amid H2 supply crash", Hydrogen Insight, November 23, 2023
  70. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Filling up with H2". H2.Live - Hydrogen Stations in Germany & Europe. 10 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  71. ^ "About - Hydrogen Mobility Europe". Hydrogen Mobility Europe. 19 November 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  72. ^ a b "Everfuel Decided to Restructure the Hydrogen Station Network Due to Current Immature Hydrogen Mobility Market and Technology, Closing Refuelling Stations", Hydrogen Central, September 15, 2023
  73. ^ Martin, Polly. "Hydrogen vehicles in Denmark left without fuel as all commercial refuelling stations shuttered", Hydrogen Insight, 20 September 2023
  74. ^ Tisheva, Plamena. "Everfuel sets out plan for hydrogen stations in southern Norway", RenewablesNow, March 22, 2021
  75. ^ Kane, Mark. "Hydrogen Fueling Station Explodes: Toyota & Hyundai Halt Fuel Cell Car Sales", Inside EVs, June 11, 2019, accessed August 5, 2021
  76. ^ Kimani, Alex. "Shell Abandons Norway’s Hydrogen Projects Due to Lack of Demand", Oil Price, September 23, 2024
  77. ^ "First Shell, now Motive, hydrogen fuel station closures continue in the UK", Innovation Origins, 4 May 2023
  78. ^ Collins, Leigh. "Shell has quietly closed down all its hydrogen filling stations in the UK", Hydrogen Insight, 17 October 2022
  79. ^ "Station Status - HTEC". www.htec.ca. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  80. ^ a b Canada, Natural Resources (5 January 2018). "Electric Charging and Alternative Fuelling Stations Locator". www.nrcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  81. ^ Begert, Blanca. "Is this the end of the hydrogen highway?", Politico, August 15, 2023
  82. ^ Dokso, Anela. "Shell Abandons California Hydrogen Stations", Energy News, September 19, 2023; and Collins, Leigh. "Shell scraps plan to build 48 new hydrogen filling stations in California, for which it had been awarded $40.6m grant", Hydrogen Insight, 18 September 2023
  83. ^ Hogan, Mack. "Shell Is Immediately Closing all of Its California Hydrogen Stations", Inside EVs, February 9, 2024
  84. ^ Hawaii hydrogen power park
  85. ^ First solar-powered hydrogen plant in AF complete on Hickam Archived 2013-02-19 at the Wayback Machine
  86. ^ "Fuel Cell Scooters and Solar Hydrogen Refuelling Station Launched in Hawaii". Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  87. ^ Motavalli, Jim (2001). Breaking Gridlock: Moving Towards Transportation That Works. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-57805-039-0.
  88. ^ "Hydrogen refuelling station opens in Canberra". Australian Capital Territory Government (Press release). 26 March 2021. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
  89. ^ International hydrogen fuel and pressure vessel forum 2010 Archived 2012-09-05 at the Wayback Machine
  90. ^ R&D of large stationary hydrogen/CNG/HCNG storage vessels
  91. ^ CNG & Hydrogen tank safety, R&D, and testing
  92. ^ Hycan Archived 2011-12-06 at the Wayback Machine
  93. ^ Horizon HydroStik
  94. ^ Onboard storage of hydrogen-Page 2 Archived 2006-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
  95. ^ "Onboard type IV vessels" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2007. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
  96. ^ "The first commercial Type V composite pressure vessel". 31 March 2020.
  97. ^ Modeling of dispersion following hydrogen permeation for safety engineering and risk assessment Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine
  98. ^ U.S. DOE storage safety
  99. ^ U.S. DOE best safety practices hydrogen properties
  100. ^ CNRS Institut Neel H2 Storage
  101. ^ Dornheim, M.; Doppiu, S.; Barkhordarian, G.; Boesenberg, U.; Klassen, T.; Gutfleisch, O.; Bormann, R. (2007). "Hydrogen storage in magnesium-based hydrides and hydride composites". Scripta Materialia. Viewpoint set no. 42 “Nanoscale materials for hydrogen storage”. 56 (10): 841–846. doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.01.003. ISSN 1359-6462.
  102. ^ Schlapbach, Louis; Züttel, Andreas (15 November 2001). "Hydrogen-storage materials for mobile applications" (PDF). Nature. 414 (6861): 353–358. Bibcode:2001Natur.414..353S. doi:10.1038/35104634. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11713542. S2CID 3025203.
  103. ^ "Storage by Mc-Phy". Archived from the original on 3 December 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  104. ^ Development of a Clay-Plastic Composite Material with Good Hydrogen Gas Barrier Property Archived 2008-08-21 at the Wayback Machine

Sources

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_infrastructure&oldid=1249447035"