Wikipedia

Early Triassic

(Redirected from Lower Triassic)

The Early Triassic is the first of three epochs of the Triassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 247.2 Ma (million years ago). Rocks from this epoch are collectively known as the Lower Triassic Series, which is a unit in chronostratigraphy. The Early Triassic is the oldest epoch of the Mesozoic Era. It is preceded by the Lopingian Epoch (late Permian, Paleozoic Era) and followed by the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Early Triassic is divided into the Induan and Olenekian ages. The Induan is subdivided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian subages and the Olenekian is subdivided into the Smithian and Spathian subages.[7]

Early/Lower Triassic
251.9 – 247.2 Ma
↓
A map of Earth as it appeared 250 million years ago during the Early Triassic Epoch, Olenekian Age
Sandstone from the Lower Triassic Series
Chronology
Etymology
Chronostratigraphic nameLower Triassic
Geochronological nameEarly Triassic
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitEpoch
Stratigraphic unitSeries
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionFAD of the Conodont Hindeodus parvus
Lower boundary GSSPMeishan, Zhejiang, China
31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E / 31.0798; 119.7058
Lower GSSP ratified2001[6]
Upper boundary definitionNot formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidates
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)

The Lower Triassic series is coeval with the Scythian Stage, which is today not included in the official timescales but can be found in older literature. In Europe, most of the Lower Triassic is composed of Buntsandstein, a lithostratigraphic unit of continental red beds.[citation needed]

The Early Triassic and partly also the Middle Triassic span the interval of biotic recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the most severe mass extinction event in Earth's history.[8][9][10] A second extinction event, the Smithian-Spathian boundary event, occurred during the Olenekian.[11] A third extinction event occurred at the Olenekian-Anisian boundary, marking the end of the Early Triassic epoch.[12]

Early Triassic climate

edit
 
The Putorana Plateau is composed of basalt rocks of the Siberian Traps.

The climate during the Early Triassic Epoch (especially in the interior of the supercontinent Pangaea) was generally arid, rainless and dry and deserts were widespread; however the poles possessed a temperate climate. The pole-to-equator temperature gradient was temporally flat during the Early Triassic and may have allowed tropical species to extend their distribution poleward. This is evidenced by the global distribution of ammonoids.[13] The extremely hot ocean temperatures facilitated extremely powerful hurricanes that frequently hit the coast of North China.[14]

The mostly hot climate of the Early Triassic may have been caused by late volcanic eruptions of the Siberian Traps,[15][8] which had probably triggered the Permian-Triassic extinction event and accelerated the rate of global warming into the Triassic.[16] Studies suggest that Early Triassic climate was very volatile, punctuated by a number of relatively rapid global temperature changes, marine anoxic events, and carbon cycle disturbances,[17][18][19] which led to subsequent extinction events in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic extinction event.[20][21][22] On the other hand, an alternative hypothesis proposes these Early Triassic climatic perturbations and biotic upheavals that inhibited the recovery of life following the P-T mass extinction to have been linked to forcing driven by changes in the Earth's obliquity defined by a roughly 32.8 thousand year periodicity with strong 1.2 million year modulations. According to proponents of this hypothesis, radiometric dating indicates that major activity from the Siberian Traps ended very shortly after the end-Permian extinction and did not span the entire Early Triassic epoch, thus not being the primary culprit for the climatic changes throughout this epoch.[23]

Early Triassic life

edit
Main page: Category:Early Triassic life

Fauna and flora

edit
 
Pleuromeia represented a dominant element of global floras during the Early Triassic

The Triassic Period opened in the aftermath of the Permian–Triassic extinction event. The massive extinctions that ended the Permian Period (and with that the Paleozoic Era) caused extreme hardships for the surviving species.

The Early Triassic Epoch saw the biotic recovery of life after the biggest mass extinction event of the past, which took millions of years due to the severity of the event and the harsh Early Triassic climate.[24] Many types of corals, brachiopods, molluscs, echinoderms, and other invertebrates had disappeared. The Permian vegetation, which was dominated by Glossopteris in the Southern Hemisphere, ceased to exist.[25] Other groups, such as Actinopterygii, appear to have been less affected by this extinction event[26] and body size was not a selective factor during the extinction event.[27][28] Animals that were most successful in the Early Triassic were those with high metabolisms.[29] Different patterns of recovery are evident on land and in the sea. Early Triassic faunas lacked biodiversity and were relatively homogeneous due to the effects of the extinction. The ecological recovery on land took 30 million years, well into the Late Triassic.[30] Two Early Triassic lagerstätten stand out due to their exceptionally high biodiversity, the Dienerian aged Guiyang biota[31] and the earliest Spathian aged Paris biota.[32]

Terrestrial biota

edit

The most common land vertebrate was the small herbivorous synapsid Lystrosaurus. Often interpreted as a disaster taxon (although this view was questioned[33]), Lystrosaurus had a wide range across Pangea. In the southern part of the supercontinent, it co-occurred with the non-mammalian cynodonts Galesaurus and Thrinaxodon, early relatives of mammals. First archosauriforms appeared, such as Erythrosuchus (Olenekian-Ladinian).[34] This group includes the ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs (including birds). Fossilized foot prints of dinosauromorphs are known from the Olenekian.[35] The Early Triassic entomofauna is very poorly understood because of the paucity of insect fossils from this epoch.[36]

The flora was gymnosperm-dominated at the onset of the Triassic, but changed rapidly and became lycopod-dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) during the Griesbachian-Dienerian ecological crisis. This change coincided with the extinction of the Permian Glossopteris flora.[25] In the Spathian subage, the flora changed back to gymnosperm and pteridophyte dominated.[37] These shifts reflect global changes in precipitation and temperature.[25][20] Floral diversity was overall very low during the Early Triassic, as plant life had yet to fully recover from the Permian-Triassic extinction.[38]

Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) are common in the fossil record of North China in the immediate aftermath of the Permian-Triassic extinction, indicating that microbial mats dominated local terrestrial ecosystems following the Permian-Triassic boundary. The regional prevalence of MISS is attributable to a decrease in bioturbation and grazing pressure as a result of aridification and temperature increase.[39] MISS have also been reported from Early Triassic fossil deposits in Arctic Canada.[40] The disappearance of MISS later in the Early Triassic has been interpreted as a signal of increased bioturbation and recovery of terrestrial ecosystems.[39]

Aquatic biota

edit

In the oceans, the most common Early Triassic hard-shelled marine invertebrates were bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, echinoids, and a few articulate brachiopods. Conodonts experienced a revival in diversity following a nadir during the Permian.[41] The first oysters (Liostrea) appeared in the Early Triassic. They grew on the shells of living ammonoids as epizoans.[42] Microbial reefs were common, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction.[43] However, transient metazoan reefs reoccurred during the Olenekian wherever permitted by environmental conditions.[44] Ammonoids show blooms followed by extinctions during the Early Triassic.[45]

Aquatic vertebrates diversified after the extinction:

edit

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; et al. (2020). "Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8 (196): 196. Bibcode:2020FrEaS...8..196W. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196.
  2. ^ McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 22 (10): 548–557. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003. PMID 17919771.
  3. ^ Retallack, G. J.; Veevers, J.; Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants". GSA Bulletin. 108 (2): 195–207. Bibcode:1996GSAB..108..195R. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 2007-09-29.
  4. ^ Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004). "Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction". Science. 305 (5683): 506–9. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..506P. doi:10.1126/science.1097023. PMID 15273391. S2CID 35498132.
  5. ^ Ogg, James G.; Ogg, Gabi M.; Gradstein, Felix M. (2016). "Triassic". A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016. Elsevier. pp. 133–149. ISBN 978-0-444-63771-0.
  6. ^ Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (2): 102–114. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  7. ^ Tozer, Edward T. (1965). Lower Triassic stages and ammonoid zones of arctic Canada. Geological Survey of Canada. OCLC 606894884.
  8. ^ a b Payne, Jonathan L.; Kump, Lee R. (15 April 2007). "Evidence for recurrent Early Triassic massive volcanism from quantitative interpretation of carbon isotope fluctuations". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 256 (1–2): 264–277. Bibcode:2007E&PSL.256..264P. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.01.034. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  9. ^ Feng, Xueqian; Chen, Zhong-Qiang; Woods, Adam; Fang, Yuheng (15 November 2017). "A Smithian (Early Triassic) ichnoassemblage from Lichuan, Hubei Province, South China: Implications for biotic recovery after the latest Permian mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 486: 123–141. Bibcode:2017PPP...486..123F. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.03.003. Archived from the original on 21 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  10. ^ Matamales-Andreu, Rafel; Peñalver, Enrique; Mujal, Eudald; Oms, Oriol; Scholze, Frank; Juárez, Josep; Galobart, Àngel; Fortuny, Josep (November 2021). "Early–Middle Triassic fluvial ecosystems of Mallorca (Balearic Islands): Biotic communities and environmental evolution in the equatorial western peri-Tethys". Earth-Science Reviews. 222: 103783. Bibcode:2021ESRv..22203783M. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103783. S2CID 238730784. Archived from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2022.
  11. ^ Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; Vennemann, Torsten; Bagherpour, Borhan; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Goudemand, Nicolas; Schaltegger, Urs (2020). "Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8 (196): 196. Bibcode:2020FrEaS...8..196W. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196.
  12. ^ Song, Haijin; Song, Huyue; Tong, Jinnan; Gordon, Gwyneth W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Tian, Li; Zheng, Wang; Algeo, Thomas J.; Liang, Lei; Bai, Ruoyu; Wu, Kui; Anbar, Ariel D. (20 February 2021). "Conodont calcium isotopic evidence for multiple shelf acidification events during the Early Triassic". Chemical Geology. 562: 120038. Bibcode:2021ChGeo.56220038S. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.120038. S2CID 233915627. Archived from the original on 12 December 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
  13. ^ Brayard, Arnaud; Bucher, Hugo; Escarguel, Gilles; Fluteau, Frédéric; Bourquin, Sylvie; Galfetti, Thomas (September 2006). "The Early Triassic ammonoid recovery: Paleoclimatic significance of diversity gradients". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 239 (3–4): 374–395. Bibcode:2006PPP...239..374B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.02.003.
  14. ^ Ji, Kaixuan; Wignall, Paul B.; Peakall, Jeff; Tong, Jinnan; Chu, Daoliang; Pruss, Sara B. (1 June 2021). Fielding, Christopher (ed.). "Unusual intraclast conglomerates in a stormy, hot‐house lake: The Early Triassic North China Basin". Sedimentology. 68 (7): 3385–3404. doi:10.1111/sed.12903. ISSN 0037-0746. Retrieved 9 March 2024 – via Wiley Online Library.
  15. ^ Borruel-Abadía, Violeta; López-Gómez, José; De la Horra, Raúl; Galán-Abellán, Belén; Barrenechea, José; Arche, Alfredo; Ronchi, Ausonio; Gretter, Nicola; Marzo, Mariano (15 December 2015). "Climate changes during the Early–Middle Triassic transition in the E. Iberian plate and their palaeogeographic significance in the western Tethys continental domain". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 440: 671–689. Bibcode:2015PPP...440..671B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.043. hdl:10261/124328. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2022.
  16. ^ Preto, Nereo; Kustatscher, Evelyn; Wignall, Paul B. (April 2010). "Triassic climates — State of the art and perspectives". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 290 (1–4): 1–10. Bibcode:2010PPP...290....1P. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.015.
  17. ^ Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke (December 2020). "Regime Shifts in an Early Triassic Subtropical Ecosystem". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8: 588696. Bibcode:2020FrEaS...8..608S. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.588696.
  18. ^ Li, Hanxiao; Dong, Hanxinshuo; Jiang, Haishui; Wignall, Paul B.; Chen, Yanlong; Zhang, Muhui; Ouyang, Zhumin; Wu, Xianlang; Wu, Baojin; Zhang, Zaitian; Lai, Xulong (1 September 2022). "Integrated conodont biostratigraphy and δ13Ccarb records from end Permian to Early Triassic at Yiwagou Section, Gansu Province, northwestern China and their implications". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 601: 111079. Bibcode:2022PPP...60111079L. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111079. S2CID 249144143. Archived from the original on 26 December 2022. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
  19. ^ Lehrmann, Daniel J.; Stepchinski, Leanne; Altiner, Demir; Orchard, Michael J.; Montgomery, Paul; Enos, Paul; Ellwood, Brooks B.; Bowring, Samuel A.; Ramezani, Jahandar; Wang, Hongmei; Wei, Jiayong; Yu, Meiyi; Griffiths, James W.; Minzoni, Marcello; Schaal, Ellen K.; Li, Xiaowei; Meyer, Katja M.; Payne, Jonathan L. (15 August 2015). "An integrated biostratigraphy (conodonts and foraminifers) and chronostratigraphy (paleomagnetic reversals, magnetic susceptibility, elemental chemistry, carbon isotopes and geochronology) for the Permian–Upper Triassic strata of Guandao section, Nanpanjiang Basin, south China". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 108: 117–135. Bibcode:2015JAESc.108..117L. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.04.030. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  20. ^ a b Romano, Carlo; Goudemand, Nicolas; Vennemann, Torsten W.; Ware, David; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Hochuli, Peter A.; Brühwiler, Thomas; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo (21 December 2012). "Climatic and biotic upheavals following the end-Permian mass extinction". Nature Geoscience. 6 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1038/ngeo1667. S2CID 129296231.
  21. ^ Sun, Y.; Joachimski, M. M.; Wignall, P. B.; Yan, C.; Chen, Y.; Jiang, H.; Wang, L.; Lai, X. (18 October 2012). "Lethally Hot Temperatures During the Early Triassic Greenhouse". Science. 338 (6105): 366–370. Bibcode:2012Sci...338..366S. doi:10.1126/science.1224126. PMID 23087244. S2CID 41302171.
  22. ^ Goudemand, Nicolas; Romano, Carlo; Leu, Marc; Bucher, Hugo; Trotter, Julie A.; Williams, Ian S. (August 2019). "Dynamic interplay between climate and marine biodiversity upheavals during the early Triassic Smithian -Spathian biotic crisis". Earth-Science Reviews. 195: 169–178. Bibcode:2019ESRv..195..169G. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.01.013.
  23. ^ Li, Mingsong; Huang, Chunju; Hinnov, Linda; Ogg, James; Chen, Zhong-Qiang; Zhang, Yang (1 August 2016). "Obliquity-forced climate during the Early Triassic hothouse in China". Geology. 44 (8): 623–626. Bibcode:2016Geo....44..623L. doi:10.1130/G37970.1. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2022.
  24. ^ Chen, Zhong-Qiang; Benton, Michael J. (27 May 2012). "The timing and pattern of biotic recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction". Nature Geoscience. 5 (6): 375–383. Bibcode:2012NatGe...5..375C. doi:10.1038/ngeo1475.
  25. ^ a b c Hochuli, Peter A.; Sanson-Barrera, Anna; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Bucher, Hugo (24 June 2016). "Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 28372. Bibcode:2016NatSR...628372H. doi:10.1038/srep28372. PMC 4920029. PMID 27340926.
  26. ^ Smithwick, Fiann M.; Stubbs, Thomas L. (2 February 2018). "Phanerozoic survivors: Actinopterygian evolution through the Permo‐Triassic and Triassic‐Jurassic mass extinction events". Evolution. 72 (2): 348–362. doi:10.1111/evo.13421. PMC 5817399. PMID 29315531.
  27. ^ a b c Romano, Carlo; Koot, Martha B.; Kogan, Ilja; Brayard, Arnaud; Minikh, Alla V.; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo; Kriwet, Jürgen (February 2016). "Permian-Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution". Biological Reviews. 91 (1): 106–147. doi:10.1111/brv.12161. PMID 25431138. S2CID 5332637.
  28. ^ Puttick, Mark N.; Kriwet, Jürgen; Wen, Wen; Hu, Shixue; Thomas, Gavin H.; Benton, Michael J.; Angielczyk, Kenneth (September 2017). "Body length of bony fishes was not a selective factor during the biggest mass extinction of all time". Palaeontology. 60 (5): 727–741. Bibcode:2017Palgy..60..727P. doi:10.1111/pala.12309. hdl:1983/bda1adfa-7dd7-41e3-accf-a93d9d034518.
  29. ^ Pietsch, Carlie; Ritterbush, Kathleen A.; Thompson, Jeffrey R.; Petsios, Elizabeth; Bottjer, David J. (1 January 2019). "Evolutionary models in the Early Triassic marine realm". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 513: 65–85. Bibcode:2019PPP...513...65P. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.12.016. S2CID 134281291. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
  30. ^ Sahney, Sarda; Benton, Michael J (15 January 2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–765. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
  31. ^ Dai, Xu; Davies, Joshua H.F.L.; Yuan, Zhiwei; Brayard, Arnaud; Ovtcharova, Maria; Xu, Guanghui; Liu, Xiaokang; Smith, Christopher P.A.; Schweitzer, Carrie E.; Li, Mingtao; Perrot, Morgann G.; Jiang, Shouyi; Miao, Luyi; Cao, Yiran; Yan, Jia; Bai, Ruoyu; Wang, Fengyu; Guo, Wei; Song, Huyue; Tian, Li; Dal Corso, Jacopo; Liu, Yuting; Chu, Daoliang; Song, Haijun (2023). "A Mesozoic fossil lagerstätte from 250.8 million years ago shows a modern-type marine ecosystem". Science. 379 (6632): 567–572. Bibcode:2023Sci...379..567D. doi:10.1126/science.adf1622. PMID 36758082. S2CID 256697946.
  32. ^ Brayard, Arnaud; Krumenacker, L. J.; Botting, Joseph P.; Jenks, James F.; Bylund, Kevin G.; Fara, Emmanuel; Vennin, Emmanuelle; Olivier, Nicolas; Goudemand, Nicolas; Saucède, Thomas; Charbonnier, Sylvain; Romano, Carlo; Doguzhaeva, Larisa; Thuy, Ben; Hautmann, Michael; Stephen, Daniel A.; Thomazo, Christophe; Escarguel, Gilles (2017). "Unexpected Early Triassic marine ecosystem and the rise of the Modern evolutionary fauna". Science Advances. 3 (2): e1602159. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E2159B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602159. PMC 5310825. PMID 28246643.
  33. ^ Modesto, Sean P. (December 2020). "The Disaster Taxon Lystrosaurus: A Paleontological Myth". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8: 610463. Bibcode:2020FrEaS...8..617M. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.610463.
  34. ^ Foth, Christian; Ezcurra, Martín D.; Sookias, Roland B.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Butler, Richard J. (15 September 2016). "Unappreciated diversification of stem archosaurs during the Middle Triassic predated the dominance of dinosaurs". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 16 (1): 188. doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0761-6. PMC 5024528. PMID 27628503.
  35. ^ Brusatte, Stephen L.; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz; Butler, Richard J. (6 October 2010). "Footprints pull origin and diversification of dinosaur stem lineage deep into Early Triassic". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1708): 1107–1113. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1746. PMC 3049033. PMID 20926435.
  36. ^ Żyła, Dagmara; Wegierek, Piotr; Owocki, Krzysztof; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz (1 February 2013). "Insects and crustaceans from the latest Early–early Middle Triassic of Poland". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 371: 136–144. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.01.002. ISSN 0031-0182. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  37. ^ Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Kürschner, Wolfram M.; Kerp, Hans; Bomfleur, Benjamin; Hochuli, Peter A.; Bucher, Hugo; Ware, David; Roohi, Ghazala (April 2015). "Vegetation history across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Pakistan (Amb section, Salt Range)". Gondwana Research. 27 (3): 911–924. Bibcode:2015GondR..27..911S. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2013.11.007.
  38. ^ Xu, Zhen; Hilton, Jason; Yu, Jianxin; Wignall, Paul B.; Yin, Hongfu; Xue, Qing; Ran, Weiju; Li, Hui; Shen, Jun; Meng, Fansong (22 July 2022). "End Permian to Middle Triassic plant species richness and abundance patterns in South China: Coevolution of plants and the environment through the Permian–Triassic transition". Earth-Science Reviews. 232: 104136. Bibcode:2022ESRv..23204136X. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104136. S2CID 251031028. Archived from the original on 28 November 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  39. ^ a b Chu, Daoliang; Tong, Jinnan; Bottjer, David J.; Song, Haijun; Song, Huyue; Benton, Michael James; Tian, Li; Guo, Wenwei (15 May 2017). "Microbial mats in the terrestrial Lower Triassic of North China and implications for the Permian–Triassic mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 474: 214–231. Bibcode:2017PPP...474..214C. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.06.013. hdl:1983/95966174-157e-4814-b73f-6901ff9b9bf8. Archived from the original on 24 December 2022. Retrieved 23 December 2022.
  40. ^ Wignall, Paul B.; Bond, David P. G.; Grasby, Stephen E.; Pruss, Sarah B.; Peakall, Jeffrey (30 August 2019). "Controls on the formation of microbially induced sedimentary structures and biotic recovery in the Lower Triassic of Arctic Canada". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 132 (5–6): 918–930. doi:10.1130/B35229.1. S2CID 202194000. Archived from the original on 23 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  41. ^ Ginot, Samuel; Goudemand, Nicolas (December 2020). "Global climate changes account for the main trends of conodont diversity but not for their final demise". Global and Planetary Change. 195: 103325. Bibcode:2020GPC...19503325G. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103325. S2CID 225005180.
  42. ^ Hautmann, Michael; Ware, David; Bucher, Hugo (August 2017). "Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids". Journal of Molluscan Studies. 83 (3): 253–260. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyx018.
  43. ^ Foster, William J.; Heindel, Katrin; Richoz, Sylvain; Gliwa, Jana; Lehrmann, Daniel J.; Baud, Aymon; Kolar‐Jurkovšek, Tea; Aljinović, Dunja; Jurkovšek, Bogdan; Korn, Dieter; Martindale, Rowan C.; Peckmann, Jörn (20 November 2019). "Suppressed competitive exclusion enabled the proliferation of Permian/Triassic boundary microbialites". The Depositional Record. 6 (1): 62–74. doi:10.1002/dep2.97. PMC 7043383. PMID 32140241.
  44. ^ Brayard, Arnaud; Vennin, Emmanuelle; Olivier, Nicolas; Bylund, Kevin G.; Jenks, Jim; Stephen, Daniel A.; Bucher, Hugo; Hofmann, Richard; Goudemand, Nicolas; Escarguel, Gilles (18 September 2011). "Transient metazoan reefs in the aftermath of the end-Permian mass extinction". Nature Geoscience. 4 (10): 693–697. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..693B. doi:10.1038/ngeo1264.
  45. ^ Brayard, A.; Escarguel, G.; Bucher, H.; Monnet, C.; Bruhwiler, T.; Goudemand, N.; Galfetti, T.; Guex, J. (27 August 2009). "Good Genes and Good Luck: Ammonoid Diversity and the End-Permian Mass Extinction". Science. 325 (5944): 1118–1121. Bibcode:2009Sci...325.1118B. doi:10.1126/science.1174638. PMID 19713525. S2CID 1287762.
  46. ^ Romano, Carlo (January 2021). "A hiatus obscures the early evolution of Modern lineages of bony fishes". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8: 618853. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.618853.
  47. ^ Cavin, L.; Argyriou, T.; Romano, C.; Grădinaru, E. (2024). "Large durophagous fish from the Spathian (late Early Triassic) of Romania hints at earlier onset of the Triassic actinopterygian revolution". Papers in Palaeontology. 10 (2). e1553. doi:10.1002/spp2.1553.
  48. ^ Cavin, Lionel; Furrer, Heinz; Obrist, Christian (2013). "New coelacanth material from the Middle Triassic of eastern Switzerland, and comments on the taxic diversity of actinistans". Swiss Journal of Geoscience. 106 (2): 161–177. doi:10.1007/s00015-013-0143-7.
  49. ^ Wendruff, A. J.; Wilson, M. V. H. (2012). "A fork-tailed coelacanth, Rebellatrix divaricerca, gen. et sp. nov. (Actinistia, Rebellatricidae, fam. nov.), from the Lower Triassic of Western Canada". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 32 (3): 499–511. Bibcode:2012JVPal..32..499W. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.657317. S2CID 85826893.
  50. ^ Mutter, Raoul J.; Neuman, Andrew G. (2008). "New eugeneodontid sharks from the Lower Triassic Sulphur Mountain Formation of Western Canada". In Cavin, L.; Longbottom, A.; Richter, M. (eds.). Fishes and the Break-up of Pangaea. Geological Society of London, Special Publications. Vol. 295. London: Geological Society of London. pp. 9–41. doi:10.1144/sp295.3. S2CID 130268582.
  51. ^ a b Scheyer, Torsten M.; Romano, Carlo; Jenks, Jim; Bucher, Hugo (19 March 2014). "Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e88987. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988987S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088987. PMC 3960099. PMID 24647136.
  52. ^ Fröbisch, Nadia B.; Fröbisch, Jörg; Sander, P. Martin; Schmitz, Lars; Rieppel, Olivier (22 January 2013). "Macropredatory ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic and the origin of modern trophic networks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (4): 1393–1397. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.1393F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1216750110. PMC 3557033. PMID 23297200.

Further reading

edit
  • Martinetto, Edoardo; Tschopp, Emanuel; Gastaldo, Robert, eds. (2020). Nature through Time: Virtual field trips through the Nature of the past. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-35057-4.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Triassic&oldid=1256929704"