A vaccination policy is a health policy adopted in order to prevent the spread of infectious disease. These policies are generally put into place by state or local governments, but may also be set by private facilities, such as workplaces or schools.[1][2] Many policies have been developed and implemented since vaccines were first made widely available.
Mandatory to all Mandatory to some Recommended to all Recommended to some | ||
The main purpose of implementing a vaccination policy is complete eradication of a disease, as was done with smallpox. This, however, can be a difficult feat to accomplish or even confirm. Many governmental public health agencies (such as the CDC or ECDC) rely on vaccination policies to create a herd immunity within their populations. Immunization advisory committees are usually responsible for providing those in leadership positions with information used to make evidence-based decisions regarding vaccines and other health policies.
Vaccination policies vary from country to country, with some mandating them and others strongly recommending them. Some places only require them for people utilizing government services, like welfare or public schools. A government or facility may pay for all or part of the costs of vaccinations, such as in a national vaccination schedule,[3] or job requirement.[4] Cost-benefit analyses of vaccinations have shown that there is an economic incentive to implement policies, as vaccinations save the State time and money by reducing the burden preventable diseases and epidemics have on healthcare facilities and funds.[5][6][7]
Goals
editIndividual and herd immunity
edit
Vaccination policies aim to produce immunity to preventable diseases. Besides individual protection from getting ill, some vaccination policies also aim to provide the community as a whole with herd immunity. Herd immunity refers to the idea that the pathogen will have trouble spreading when a significant part of the population has immunity against it, reducing the effect an infectious disease has on society. This protects those unable to get the vaccine due to medical conditions, such as immune disorders.[8] However, for herd immunity to be effective in a population, a majority of those who are vaccine-eligible must be vaccinated.[9]
Vaccine-preventable diseases remain a common cause of childhood mortality with an estimated three million deaths each year.[10] Each year, vaccination prevents between two and three million deaths worldwide, across all age groups, from diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis and measles.[11]
Eradication of diseases
edit
With some vaccines, a goal of vaccination policies is to eradicate the disease – disappear it from Earth altogether. The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinated the effort to eradicate smallpox globally through vaccination, the last naturally occurring case of smallpox was in Somalia in 1977.[12] Endemic measles, mumps and rubella have been eliminated through vaccination in Finland.[13] On 14 October 2010, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization declared that rinderpest had been eradicated.[14] The WHO is currently working to eradicate polio,[15] which was eliminated in Africa in August 2020 and remained only in Pakistan and Afghanistan at the time.[16]
Individual versus group goals
editThe likely behavior of individuals when offered vaccines can be modeled economically using ideas from game theory.[17] According to such models, individuals will attempt to minimize the risk of illness, and may seek vaccination for themselves or their children if they perceive a high threat of disease and a low risk to vaccination.[18] However, if a vaccination program successfully reduces the disease threat, it may reduce the perceived risk of disease enough so that an individual's optimal strategy is to encourage everyone but their family to be vaccinated, or (more generally) to refuse vaccination once vaccination rates reach a certain level, even if this level is below that optimal for the community.[19][20] For example, a 2003 study predicted that a bioterrorist attack using smallpox would result in conditions where voluntary vaccination would be unlikely to reach the optimum level for the U.S. as a whole,[21] and a 2007 study predicted that severe influenza epidemics cannot be prevented by voluntary vaccination without offering certain incentives.[22]
Governments often allow exemptions to mandatory vaccinations for religious or philosophical reasons, but decreased rates of vaccination may cause loss of herd immunity, substantially increasing risks even to vaccinated individuals.[23] However, mandatory vaccination policies raise ethical issues regarding parental rights and informed consent.[24]
Fractional dose vaccination is a strategy that trades societal benefit for individual vaccine efficacy,[25] has proven to be effective in randomized trials in poverty diseases,[26][27] and in epidemiologic models[28] was thought to hold a significant potential for shortening the COVID-19 pandemic when vaccine supply is limited.[25]
Compulsory vaccination
editAt various times, governments and other institutions have established policies requiring vaccination with the aim of reducing the risk of disease. An 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, with fines levied against people who did not comply.[29] These policies stirred resistance from a variety of groups, collectively called anti-vaccinationists, who objected on ethical, political, medical safety, religious, and other grounds.[30] In the United States, the Supreme Court ruled in Jacobson v. Massachusetts (1905) that states have the authority to require vaccination against smallpox during a smallpox epidemic.[31] All fifty U.S. states require that children be vaccinated to attend public school,[32] although 47 states provide exemptions based on religious or philosophical beliefs.[33] In the European Union, the 2021 case of Vavřička and Others v. the Czech Republic,[34] decided by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), held that the nation of the Czech Republic did not violate the European Convention on Human Rights by imposing a vaccination mandate on children in that country.[35][36]
Forced vaccination (as opposed to fines or refusal of services) is rare, and typically happens only as an emergency measure during an outbreak. This has been reported in parts of China.[37] Compulsory vaccinations greatly reduce infection rates for the diseases they protect against.[29]
Common objections included the argument that governments should not infringe on individuals' freedom to make medical decisions for themselves or their children, or claims that proposed vaccinations were dangerous.[30] Many modern vaccination policies allow exemptions for people with compromised immune systems, allergies to vaccination components, or strongly held objections.[38]
In 1904, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, following an urban renewal program that displaced many poor, a government program of mandatory smallpox vaccination triggered the Vaccine Revolt, several days of rioting with considerable property damage and a number of deaths.[39]
Compulsory vaccination is a difficult policy issue, requiring authorities to balance public health with individual liberty:
Vaccination is unique among de facto mandatory requirements in the modern era, requiring individuals to accept the injection of medicine or medicinal agent into their bodies, and it has provoked a spirited opposition. This opposition began with the first vaccinations, has not ceased, and probably never will. From this realisation arises a difficult issue: how should the mainstream medical authorities approach the anti-vaccination movement? A passive reaction could be construed as endangering the health of society, whereas a heavy-handed approach can threaten the values of individual liberty and freedom of expression that we cherish.[30]
An ethical dilemma may emerge when health care providers attempt to persuade vaccine-hesitant families towards receiving vaccinations as this persuasion may lead to violating their autonomy.[9] Investigation of different types of vaccination policy finds strong evidence that standing orders and allowing healthcare workers without prescription authority (such as nurses) to administer vaccines in defined circumstances increase vaccination rates, and sufficient evidence that requiring vaccinations before attending child care and schools also does so.[40] There is also evidence that mandatory vaccination policies for healthcare workers, for instance for influenza shots, increase uptake.[41] One argument among public health professionals is that compulsory vaccination is necessary in severe circumstances, but that it should be approached carefully in order to avoid polarizing the population and decreasing trust in the long term.[42]
Many countries (Canada, Germany, Japan, and the United States) have specific requirements for reporting vaccine-related adverse effects; others (Australia, France, and the United Kingdom) include vaccines under their general requirements for reporting injuries associated with medical treatments.[43] A number of countries have both compulsory vaccination and national programs for the compensation of injuries alleged to have been caused by a vaccination.[44]
In November 2021, during a COVID-19 outbreak, Austria banned unvaccinated individuals from leaving their home apart from going to work, buying essential supplies, or exercise, in an effort to reduce the spread of disease.[45] During the fourth wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, with a low vaccination rate compared to the rest of Western Europe (79%), the Austrian government made vaccination mandatory.[46][45]
Parents' versus children's rights
editMedical ethicist Arthur Caplan argues that children have a right to the best available medical care, including vaccines, regardless of parental opinions toward vaccines, saying, "Arguments about medical freedom and choice are at odds with the human and constitutional rights of children. When parents won't protect them, governments must."[47][48] However, government entities, such as Child Protective Services, can intervene only when the parents directly harm their child via abuse or neglect, considering a child does not have the ability to give or take away consent. Although withholding medical care meets the criteria of abuse or neglect, refusing vaccinations does not, as the child is not being harmed directly.[49]
To prevent the spread of disease by unvaccinated individuals, some schools and doctors' surgeries have prohibited unvaccinated children from being enrolled, even where not required by law.[50][51] Doctors who refuse to treat unvaccinated children harm both the child and public health, and may be considered unethical when parents are unable to find another provider.[52] Opinion on this is divided, with the largest professional association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, saying that exclusion of unvaccinated children may be an option under narrowly defined circumstances.[53]
One historical example is the 1990–91 Philadelphia measles outbreak, which led to the deaths of nine children in an anti-vaccination faith healing community. Court orders were obtained to have infected children given life-saving medical treatment, against the wishes of their parents, and also for healthy children to be vaccinated without parental consent.[54][55]
In schools and daycare
editVaccination requirements for access to daycare and schools increase vaccine uptake in the United States and there is evidence that these requirements may decrease disease.[56]: 661 However, the majority of studies of mandatory vaccination took place in the US and the cultural climate in United States is quite different from other industrialized nations.[56]: 665 A study shows that many Europeans countries have whooping cough vaccination rates as high as those in the United States despite no mandates.[57][58] Canada has a similar vaccination to the US despite 11 provinces having no vaccine mandates, which may in part be due to vaccination programs taking place in school in Canada.[56]: 664
Deliberate naturally acquired immunity through infection
editIn the United Kingdom, children are not vaccinated against chickenpox despite the availability of a vaccine since the 1990s. Modelling predicted that vaccinating children would increase the number of cases amongst adults due to the absence of natural boosting from exposure to chickenpox in day-to-day life. The Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation were concerned that more pregnant women would become infected because immunity in the general population would decrease .[59]: 10
Planning vaccination policy
editVaccination committees
editVaccination policy is typically proposed by national[60][61] or supranational[62] advisory committees on immunization, and in many cases, is regulated by the government.[63]
Vaccination strategy models
editPredictive vaccination strategy models[64] play an important role in predicting effectiveness of vaccination strategies at population level. The may, e.g., compare the sequence of age groups to be vaccinated and study the outcome in terms of caseload, deaths, length of a pandemic,[65] healthcare system load,[66] and economic impact.[67]
Evaluating vaccination policy
editVaccines as a positive externality
editThe promotion of high levels of vaccination produces the protective effect of herd immunity as well as positive externalities in society.[68] Large scale vaccination is a public good, in that the benefits obtained by an individual from large scale vaccination are both non-rivalrous and non-excludable, and given these traits, individuals may avoid the costs of vaccination by "free-riding"[68] off the benefits of others being vaccinated.[68][69][70] The costs and benefits to individuals and society have been studied and critiqued in stable and changing population designs.[71][72][73] Other surveys have indicated that free-riding incentives exist in individual decisions,[74] and in a separate study that looked at parental vaccination choice, the study found that parents were less likely to vaccinate their children if their children's friends had already been vaccinated.[75]
Trust in vaccination
editTrust in vaccines and in the health system is an important element of public health programs that aim to deliver life-saving vaccines. Trust in vaccination and health care is an important indicator of government work and the effectiveness of the social policy. The success in overcoming diseases and in vaccination depends on the level of trust in vaccines and health care. The lack of trust in vaccines and immunization programs can lead to vaccine refusal, risking disease outbreaks, and challenging immunization goals in high- and low-income settings. Today, the medical and scientific communities obviously face a big challenge where vaccines are concerned, namely enhancing the trust with which the general public regards the entire endeavor. Indeed, earning the public's trust in public health is a big challenge. Accurately, studying the trust in vaccines, and understanding the factors that affect the reduction of trust, allows authorities to build an effective vaccine campaign and communication strategies to fight the disease. Trust is a key parameter to work with before and while undertaking any vaccine campaigns. The state is responsible for providing smart communication, and to inform a population about diseases, vaccines, and the risks of both. The WHO recommends that states work long-term, to build population resilience against vaccine myths and scares, to develop a strong campaign that is well prepared to respond to any event that may erode trust, and respond immediately to any event which may erode trust in health authorities.[76] A review of 34 studies into communication strategies to tackle untruths about vaccines has also suggested strategies that are helpful, such as communicating scientific consensus and using humour to dispel myths, and unhelpful, such as scare tactics. [77][78]
Cost-benefit: United States
editThe first economic analysis of routine childhood immunizations in the United States took place in 2001, and reported cost savings over the lifetime of children born that year.[79] Other analyses of the economic costs and potential benefits to individuals and society have since been evaluated.[80][81] In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a decision analysis that evaluated direct costs, such as program costs, vaccine cost, administrative burden, negative vaccine-linked reactions, and transportation time lost to parents.[81] The study focused on several communicable diseases, including diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, measles, hepatitis A and B, and varicella (chickenpox), but did not include seasonal flu vaccines. Estimated costs and benefits were adjusted to 2009 dollars and projected over time at three percent interest.[81] Of the theoretical group of 4,261,494 babies, beginning in 2009, who had followed a standard childhood immunization schedule under the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines "will prevent ~42,000 early deaths and 20 million cases of disease, with net savings of $13.5 billion in direct costs and $68.8 billion in total societal costs, respectively."[81] In the United States, and in other nations,[82][83][84] there is an economic incentive and "global value" to invest in preventive vaccination programs, especially in children as a means to prevent early infant and childhood deaths.[85] Socioeconomic disparities have been found to hinder reasonable access to vaccinations in the U.S., and it has also been found that even if such status is not a factor, "racial ethnic minority adults are less likely than whites to receive preventive care including vaccination".[86][87]
Cost-benefit for older adults
editThere is an economic incentive to establish vaccination programs for older adults as the general population is aging due to increasing life expectancy and decreasing birth rates.[88] Vaccinations can reduce the issues linked with both polypharmacy and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the older demographic with comorbidities by preventing infectious diseases and decreasing the necessity of polypharmacy and antibiotics.[89][90] One 2016 study done in Western Europe found that the estimated cost of vaccinating one person over a lifetime against 10–17 potentially debilitating pathogens would be €443–3,395 (equivalent to €544–4,172 in 2023).[91] Another study found that if 75% of adults over 65 were vaccinated against seasonal influenza, 3.2–3.8 million cases and 35,000–52,000 influenza-related deaths could be avoided, and €438–558 million saved annually, solely on the European continent.[92]
International Organizations
editIn 2006, the World Health Organization and UNICEF created the Global Immunization Vision and Strategy (GIVS). This organization created a ten-year strategy with four main goals:[93]
- to immunize more people against more diseases
- to introduce a range of newly available vaccines and technologies
- to integrate other critical health interventions with immunization
- to manage vaccination programmes within the context of global interdependence
The Global Vaccination Action Plan was created by the World Health Organization and endorsed by the World Health Assembly in 2012. The plan, which is set from 2011 to 2020, is intended to "strengthen routine immunization to meet vaccination coverage targets; accelerate control of vaccine-preventable diseases with polio eradication as the first milestone; introduce new and improved vaccines and spur research and development for the next generation of vaccines and technologies."[94]
By country
editTable
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
- ^ Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (tuberculosis) vaccine
- ^ Chickenpox vaccine (varicella)
- ^ COVID-19 vaccine
- ^ Diphteria vaccine, included in the DPT vaccine
- ^ Influenza (flu) vaccine
- ^ Hepatitis A vaccine
- ^ Hepatitis B vaccine, included in the pentavalent and hexavalent vaccines
- ^ Hib vaccine, included in the pentavalent and hexavalent vaccines
- ^ Human papillomavirus vaccine
- ^ Measles vaccine, included in the MMR vaccine
- ^ Meningococcus vaccine
- ^ Mumps vaccine, included in the MMR vaccine
- ^ Pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine, included in the DPT, pentavalent and hexavalent vaccines
- ^ Pneumococcus vaccine
- ^ Polio vaccine, included in the hexavalent vaccine
- ^ Rabies vaccines
- ^ Rotavirus vaccine
- ^ Rubella vaccine, included in the MMR vaccine
- ^ Shingles vaccine (herpes zoster)
- ^ Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine
- ^ Tetanus vaccine, included in the DPT, pentavalent and hexavalent vaccines
- ^ Yellow fever vaccine
Argentina
editIn December 2018, Argentina enacted a new vaccine policy requiring all persons who are medically able, both adults and children, to be vaccinated against specified diseases. Proof of vaccination is required to attend any level of school, file for a marriage license, and request any kind of government ID, including a passport or driver's license. The law requires the government to pay for all aspects of vaccinations and deems vaccination to be a national emergency; vaccines are exempt from internal and customs taxes.[134][135][95][96]
Australia
editIn an effort to boost vaccination rates in Australia, the Australian Government decided, starting on 1 January 2016, certain benefits (such as the universal "Family Allowance" welfare payments for parents of children) would no longer be available for conscientious objectors of vaccination. Those with medical grounds for not vaccinating continue to receive such benefits.[137] The policy is supported by a majority of Australian parents as well as the Australian Medical Association (AMA) and Early Childhood Australia. In 2014, about 97 percent of children under seven were vaccinated, although the number of conscientious objectors to vaccination had increased by 24,000 to 39,000 in the previous decade.[138]
The government began the Immunise Australia Program to increase national immunization rates.[139] They fund a number of different vaccinations for certain groups of people. The intent is to encourage the most at-risk populations to get vaccinated.[140] The government maintains an immunization schedule.[141]
In most states and territories, children can consent to vaccinations if they are judged Gillick competent; normally, this applies to children aged 15 or older.[142] In South Australia, the Consent to Medical Treatment and Palliative Care Act 1995 allows children 16 and older to consent to medical treatment.[143] Additionally, children under this age can be immunized if judged capable of informed consent.[143] In New South Wales, children can consent to medical treatment at the age of 14.[143]
When several COVID-19 vaccines were nearing completion in November 2020, Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced that all international travelers who fly to Australia without proof of a COVID-19 vaccination would be required to quarantine at their own expense.[144]
It is also lawful for workplaces in Australia to mandate vaccines. The legality of this was upheld in the Fair Work Commission case Kimber v Sapphire Coast Community Aged Care Ltd in 2021.[145]
Austria
editAustrian vaccine recommendations are developed by the National Vaccination Board (German: Nationales Impfgremium), which is part of the Federal Ministry of Social Affairs, Health, Care and Consumer Protection.[146]
Children aged 14 and older can be vaccinated without parental consent.[147]
Brazil
editVaccinating children has been mandatory in Brazil since 1975, when the federal government instituted the National Immunization Program.[148] The compulsory character was written into law in 1990, in the Statute of Children and Adolescents (Art. 14, Para. 1).[149] Parents in Brazil who don't take their children to be vaccinated run the risk of being fined or charged with negligence.[150]
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Canada
editVaccination in Canada is voluntary.[112] While vaccination is generally required to attend school in Ontario and New Brunswick, there are exemptions given to those who are opposed.[112]
Under the mature minor doctrine, minors capable of granting informed consent can be vaccinated without parental approval.
Alberta
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
British Columbia
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
New Brunswick
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ontario
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Quebec
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
China
editChina has passed the World Health Organization's (WHO) regulatory vaccine assessments, demonstrating that they adhere to international standards.[155] The Chinese government's Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) was created in 1978 and provides certain obligatory vaccines, named Category 1 vaccines, for free to all children up to 14 years of age. Initially, the vaccines consisted of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, oral polio vaccine (OPV), measles vaccine (MV) and diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (DPT vaccine).[156] By 2007, the vaccine list was expanded to include hepatitis A, hepatitis B, Japanese encephalitis, A + C meningococcal polysaccharide, mumps, Rubella, hemorrhagic fever, anthrax, and leptospirosis.[157] Category 2 vaccines, such as the rabies vaccine, are private-sector, non-obligatory vaccines that are not included in neither EPI nor the government health insurance.[158] Due to the privatized nature of Category 2 vaccines, these vaccinations are associated with low coverage rates.[159]
Both the Changsheng Bio-Technology Co Ltd and the Wuhan Institute of Biological Products have been fined for selling ineffective vaccines.[160][161] In December 2018, China enacted new laws imposing strict controls over the production and inspection of aspects of vaccine production from research, development, and testing through production and distribution.[162][163]
Costa Rica
editIn November 2021, Costa Rica added COVID-19 to the list of infectious diseases required to be vaccinated against. The vaccine is mandatory for children between the ages of 5 and 18.[164]
Finland
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
France
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In France, the High Council of Public Health is in charge of proposing vaccine recommendations to the Minister of Health. Each year, immunization recommendations for both the general population and specific groups are published by the Institute of Epidemiology and Surveillance.[france 1] Since some hospitals are granted additional freedoms, there are two key people responsible for vaccine policy within hospitals: the Operational physician (OP), and the Head of the hospital infection and prevention committee (HIPC).[france 1] Mandatory immunization policies on BCG, diphtheria, tetanus, and poliomyelitis began in the 1950s and policies on Hepatitis B began in 1991. Recommended but not mandatory suggestions on influenza, pertussis, varicella, and measles began in 2000, 2004, 2004, and 2005, respectively.[france 1] According to the 2013 INPES Peretti-Watel health barometer, between 2005 and 2010, the percentage of French people between 18 and 75 years old in favor of vaccination dropped from 90% to 60%.[citation needed]
Since 2009, France has recommended meningococcus C vaccination for infants 1–2 years old, with a catch up dosage up to 25 years later. French insurance companies have reimbursed this vaccine since January 2010, at which point coverage levels were 32.3% for children 1–2 years and 21.3% for teenagers 14–16 years old.[169] In 2012, the French government and the Institut de veille sanitaire launched a 5-year national program to improve vaccination policy. The program simplified guidelines, facilitated access to vaccination, and invested in vaccine research.[170] In 2014, fueled by rare health-related scandals, mistrust of vaccines became a common topic in the French public debate on health.[171] According to a French radio station, as of 2014, three to five percent of kids in France were not given the mandatory vaccines.[171] Some families may avoid requirements by finding a doctor willing to forge a vaccination certificate, a solution which numerous French forums confirm. However, the French State considers "vaccine refusal" a form of child abuse.[171] In some instances, parental vaccine refusals may result in criminal trials. France's 2010 creation of the Question Prioritaire Constitutionelle (QPC) allows lower courts to refer constitutional questions to the highest court in the relevant hierarchy.[france 2] Therefore, criminal trials based on vaccine refusals may be referred to the Cour de Cassation, which will then certify whether the case meets certain criteria.[france 2]
In May 2015, France updated its vaccination policies on diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, polio, Haemophilus influenzae b infections, and hepatitis B for premature infants. As of 2015, while failure to vaccinate is not necessarily illegal, a parent's right to refuse to vaccinate his or her child is technically a constitutional matter. Additionally, children in France cannot enter schools without proof of vaccination against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio.[172] French Health Minister, Marisol Touraine, finds vaccinations "absolutely fundamental to avoid disease," and has pushed to have trained pharmacists and doctors administer vaccinations.[172] Most recently, the Prime Minister's 2015–2017 roadmap for the "multi-annual social inclusion and anti-poverty plan" includes free vaccinations in certain public facilities.[173] Vaccinations within the immunization schedule are given for free at immunization services within the public sector. When given in private medical practices they are reimbursed at 65%.
Germany
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In Germany, the Standing Committee on Vaccination (STIKO) is the federal commission responsible for recommending an immunization schedule. The Robert Koch Institute in Berlin (RKI) compiles data of immunization status upon the entry of children at school, and measures vaccine coverage of Germany at a national level.[174] Founded in 1972, the STIKO is composed of 12–18 volunteers, appointed members by the Federal Ministry for Health for 3-year terms.[175] Members include experts from many scientific disciplines and public health fields and professionals with extensive experience on vaccination.[176] The independent advisory group meets biannually to address issues pertaining to preventable infectious diseases.[177] Although the STIKO makes recommendations, immunization in Germany is voluntary and there are no official government recommendations. German Federal States typically follow the Standing Vaccination Committee's recommendations minimally, although each state can make recommendations for their geographic jurisdiction that extends beyond the recommended list.[174] In addition to the proposed immunization schedule for children and adults, the STIKO recommends vaccinations for occupational groups, police, travelers, and other at risk groups.[174]
Vaccinations recommendations that are issued must be in accordance with the Protection Against Infection Act (Infektionsschutzgesetz), which regulates the prevention of infectious diseases in humans.[178] If a vaccination is recommended because of occupational risks, it must adhere to the Occupational Safety and Health Act involving Biological Agents.[179] Criteria for the recommendation include disease burden, efficacy and effectiveness, safety, feasibility of program implementation, cost-effectiveness evaluation, clinical trial results, and equity in access to the vaccine.[176] In the event of vaccination-related injuries, federal states are responsible for monetary compensation.[179] Germany's central government does not finance childhood immunizations, so 90% of vaccines are administered in a private physician's office and paid for through insurance. The other 10% of vaccines are provided by the states in public health clinics, schools, or day care centers by local immunization programs.[174] Physician responsibilities concerning immunization include beginning infancy vaccination, administering booster vaccinations, maintaining medical and vaccination history, and giving information and recommendations concerning vaccines.[179]
Children aged 15 and over can legally consent to being vaccinated, even if their parents expressly object, provided the child gives the impression of being mature, informed, and capable of understanding the risks and benefits of their decision.[180][181]
Beginning in March 2020, Germany made the measles vaccine compulsory for all children attending school or day care, as well persons employed at schools, day cares, and medical or community facilities.[182]
Ghana
editAs of January 2022, COVID-19-vaccination is mandatory for staff and students of secondary and tertiary education, employees in all arms of government, health workers, security personnel, and commercial drivers.[117]
India
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ireland
editIn the Republic of Ireland, childhood vaccination (up to age 16) requires the consent of the parents. The Department of Health strongly recommend vaccinations.[183]
Italy
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
As aging populations in Italy bring a rising burden of age-related disease, the Italian vaccination system remains complex.[184] The fact that services and decisions are delivered by 21 separate regional authorities creates many variations in Italian vaccine policy.[184] There is a National committee on immunizations that updates the national recommended immunization schedule, with input from the ministry of health representatives, regional health authorities, national institute of health, and other scientific societies.[185] Regions may add more scheduled vaccinations, but cannot exempt citizens from nationally mandated or recommended ones.[185] For instance, a nationwide plan for eliminating measles and rubella began in 2001.[185] Certain vaccinations in Italy are based on findings from the National Centre for Epidemiology, Surveillance and Health Promotion are also used to determine miscellaneous vaccination mandates.
Childhood vaccinations included in national schedules are guaranteed free of charge for all Italian children and foreign children who live in the country.[185] Estimated insurance coverage for the required three doses of HBV-Hib-IPV vaccines is at least 95% when the child is two years old. Influenza is the only nationally necessary vaccine for adults, and is administered by general practitioners.[185] To mitigate some public concerns, Italy currently has a national vaccine injury compensation program. Essentially, those who are ill or damaged by mandatory and recommended vaccinations may receive funding from the government as compensation. A 2010 evaluation of vaccine coverage, which covered the 2008 birth cohort, showed a slight decline in immunization insurance coverage rates of diphtheria, hepatitis B, polio, and tetanus after those specific vaccinations had been made mandatory.[186] However, vaccination levels continued to pass the Italian government's goal of 95% outreach.[186]
Aiming to integrate immunization strategies across the country and equitize access to disease prevention, the Italian Ministry of Health issued the National Immunization Prevention Plan (Piano Nazionale Prevenzione Vaccinale) in 2012. This plan for 2012–2014 introduced an institutional "life course" approach to vaccination to complement the Italian health policy agenda.[187] HPV vaccine coverage increased well, and pneumococcal vaccine and meningococcal C vaccines faced positive public reception. However, both infant vaccine coverage rates and influenza immunization in the elderly have been decreasing.[187] A 2015 government plan in Italy aimed to boost vaccination rates and introduce a series of new vaccines, triggering protests among public health professionals.[188] Partially in response to the statistic that less than 86% of Italian children receive the measles shot, the National Vaccination Plan for 2016–18 (PNPV) increased vaccination requirements.[188] For instance, nationwide varicella shots would be required for newborns.[188] Under this plan, government spending on vaccines would double to €620 million annually, and children could be barred from attending school without proving vaccination.[188] Although these implementations would make Italy a European frontrunner in vaccination, some experts questioned the need for several of the vaccines, and some physicians worried about the potential punishment they may face if they do not comply with the proposed regulations.[188]
There were 5,000 cases of measles in 2017, up from 870 in 2016. This rise accounted for 29% of all those in the European Union.[citation needed] The law compelling children to have ten vaccinations to enroll at state schools came into effect in March 2018 but in August 2018 the Five Star Movement pushed legislation through the Italian Senate abolishing it. It did not pass the Chamber of Deputies but parents did not have to provide schools with a doctor's note to show their children have been vaccinated.[189] By November 2018, the government had changed its stance because of the "measles emergency" and decided to uphold the obligation for children up to the age of 16, teachers and health professionals to be vaccinated. A midwife working at a hospital in central Italy was terminated for refusing vaccination.[190]
Japan
edit
Only in the legal term in Japan, citizens get old one day before their birthdays. If a person was born on January 1, 2020, and Immunization Act specifies vaccine against measles could be received from age 12 months to 24 months, vaccination shall be practiced between December 31, 2020, and December 31, 2021 (not between January 2021 and January 2022.)[191][192] Some vaccinations are scheduled in line with the school year system, which starts from April 1 in Japan.[193] As explained, those who born on April 1 and on April 2 get old legally on March 31 and April 1, respectively. Thus, these two people are in different school years and thereby they may take vaccines in different calendar years.
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In Japan, there are three types of vaccination practices: Routine (scheduled); Temporary (ad-hoc); and Non-legal.[120][121][122] Infections of the first two types are defined by Immunization Act (Japanese: 予防接種法) and its related cabinet order (Japanese: 予防接種法施行令). As of January 2020, sixteen infections in total are on the legal lists – fourteen are Category A diseases (vaccination is not mandatory but recommended to prevent pandemic), and two are Category B (not even recommended and only for a personal care purpose).[120][121]
Compared to the global standard, Japanese vaccination policy is sometimes described by medical experts as the "Vaccine Gap."[194][195] For instance, Japan is the only developed country that does not list mumps on the vaccine schedule.[194] It's also noted that the government approval for new combination vaccines usually takes longer than other developed countries, such as the United States.[194]
One reason behind the vaccine gap is that the government was sued several times for negligence of duty of care and for malpractice liabilities throughout the vaccination history.[195][196][197] The lawsuit risks, particularly the 1992 Tokyo High Court's ruling on the MMR vaccine class action, impacted on law amendment.[194] Vaccination is no longer mandatory as of 1994.[123][194] As a result, vaccination rate declined in Japan. The rate of flu vaccination, for example, was 67.9% among schoolchildren in 1979 but dropped down to approximately 20% in 1998–1999. With the rapidly aging society issue, the decline among schoolchildren hit the elderly generation. In 1998–1999 season, deadly flu outbreak spread widely in nursing homes for the elderly as well as inpatients wards. The outbreak was followed by the 2001 amendment of Immunization Act to add flu vaccination for the elderly.[195] As of February 2020, flu vaccination under the Act is in Category B (for a personal care purpose) only for the elderly.[120] However, historical data sets suggest that flu vaccination for schoolchildren is also the key to take care of the elderly.[198]
In addition to legal and social risk concerns, an issue of the decision-making process underlies the vaccine gap. Unlike the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) in the United States, a centralized permanent advisory committee for vaccination policy was not organized in Japan until 2009, when a deadly flu outbreak struck the nation. Since the committee kick-off, however, the vaccine gap has been gradually improved.[199][195]
Latvia
editAccording to a 2011 publication in CMAJ:[200] The notion of "mandatory" in Latvia differs from that of other nations. Latvia appears unique in that it compels health care providers to obtain the signatures of those who decline vaccination. Individuals have the right to refuse a vaccination, but if they do so, health providers have a duty to explain the health consequences.
Vaccines that are not mandatory are not publicly funded, so the cost for those must be borne by parents or employers, she adds. Funded vaccinations include tuberculosis, diphtheria, measles, hepatitis B, human papillomavirus for 12-year-old girls, and tick-borne encephalitis until age 18 in endemic areas and for orphans.
Beginning at age 14, minors can consent to vaccination in Latvia without parental permission.[201]
Malawi
editCOVID-19 vaccination is mandatory for health workers, journalists, and other frontline staff starting 20 December 2021.[202]
Malaysia
editIn Malaysia, mass vaccination is practised in public schools. The vaccines may be administered by a school nurse or a team of other medical staff from outside the school. All the children in a given school year are vaccinated as a cohort. For example, children may receive the oral polio vaccine in Year One of primary school (about six or seven years of age), the BCG in Year Six, and the MMR in Form Three of secondary school. Therefore, most people have received their core vaccines by the time they finish secondary school.[203]
Mexico
editMexico has a multi-year program for immunisation of children.[204] The immunisation of children is fully covered by the government.[204] Mexico has an adverse events committee to monitor the adverse effects of vaccination as well as a standing technical advisory group on immunization.[204]
The recommended vaccine schedule for children in Mexico contains vaccinations against 16 vaccine-preventable diseases.[205] Vaccine doses administered in Mexico are usually valid in the United States.[205] The immunization schedule for children in Mexico is as follows:
| Name | Age of administration | Diseases prevented |
|---|---|---|
| BCG | at birth | Tuberculosis |
| Antihepatitis B | at birth, 2, 6 months | Hepatitis B |
| Rotarix | 2,4 months | Rotavirus |
| Pneumococcal vaccine | 2,4 months, 12 through 15 months | Pneumococcal pneumonia |
| Antihepatitis A | 12, 18 months | Hepatitis A |
| Pentavalent vaccine | 2,4,6,18 months | H. influenzae type B, Pertussis, Diphtheria, Tetanus, Polio |
| Varicella vaccine | 12 months | Chicken pox |
| Triple viral SRP | 12 months, 6 years | Measles, Mumps, Rubella |
| Influenza vaccine | 6 through 59 months, 36 months through 9 years (high risk only) | Influenza |
| Human papillomavirus vaccine | 11 through 12 years (3 doses, girls only) | Human Papillomavirus |
| DPT | 4 through 6 years | Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus |
| SR vaccine | 12 years | Measles, Rubella |
| Sabin vaccine | 2 doses per years, from 6 to 59 months of age in addition to prior 2 doses of IPV | Polio |
| Td | 12 years | Tetanus |
In addition, Vitamin A is offered to all children of one year of age enrolled in nurseries or children's rooms.
New Zealand
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Minors aged 16 and older may consent to vaccination without parental approval.[207]
Nigeria
edit
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In Nigeria, the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI), was introduced in 1978 to provide free immunization against polio, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, tuberculosis, and yellow fever to Nigerian children less than two years old. This free immunization can be obtained at any primary healthcare provider in the country. The vaccines are usually administered by a government health care worker. They also conduct routine vaccination visits in schools where all the children in a given school are vaccinated.[10]
Pakistan
editFacing numerous minor polio epidemics, the Pakistani government has now ruled that polio vaccination is mandatory and indisputable. In a statement from Pakistani Police Commissioner Riaz Khan Mehsud, "There is no mercy, we have decided to deal with the refusal cases with iron hands. Anyone who refuses [the vaccine] will be sent to jail."[209]
Panama
editCOVID-19 vaccination may become mandatory for government employees. Unvaccinated employees may be forced to take unpaid leave.[210][211] Having completed the vaccine schedule for schoolchildren up to the child's age, is required for access to the government's main scholarship program.[212]
Russia
editAs of 2019, immunization is voluntary in Russia.[213] In May 2021, Russian President Vladimir Putin said that mandating COVID-19 vaccines would be "impractical and impossible."[214]
Samoa
editIn the wake of a declared measles epidemic, Samoan authorities made vaccination against measles compulsory in November 2019.[215]
Slovenia
editAccording to a 2011 publication in CMAJ:[200] Slovenia has one of the world's most aggressive and comprehensive vaccination programs. Its program is mandatory for nine designated diseases. Within the first three months of life, infants must be vaccinated for tuberculosis, tetanus, polio, pertussis, and Haemophilus influenza type B. Within 18 months, vaccines are required for measles, mumps, and rubella, and finally, before a child starts school, the child must be vaccinated for hepatitis B. While a medical exemption request can be submitted to a committee, such an application for reasons of religion or conscience would not be acceptable. Failure to comply results in a fine and compliance rates top 95%, Kraigher says, adding that for nonmandatory vaccines, such as the one for human papillomavirus, coverage is below 50%.
Mandatory vaccination against measles was introduced in 1968 and since 1978, all children receive two doses of vaccine with a compliance rate of more than 95%.[216] For TBE, the vaccination rate in 2007 was estimated to be 12.4% of the general population in 2007. For comparison, in neighboring Austria, 87% of the population is vaccinated against TBE.[217]
South Africa
editIn South Africa vaccination is voluntary.[131]
The South African Vaccination and Immunisation Centre (SAVIC) began in 2003 as an alliance between the South African Department of Health, vaccine industry, academic institutions, and other stakeholders.[218] SAVIC works with the WHO and the South African National Department of Health to educate, research, provide technical support, and advocate for country-wide vaccinations.
Spain
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spain's 19 autonomous communities, consisting of 17 Regions and two cities, follow health policies established by the Inter-Territorial Health Council that was formed by the National and Regional Ministries of Health.[219] This Inter-Territorial Council is composed of representatives from each region and meets to discuss health related issues spanning across Spain. The Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIIII) is a public research institute that manages biomedical research for the advancement of health sciences and disease preventions.[220] The ISCIII may suggest the introduction of new vaccines into Spain's Recommended Health Schedule and is under direct control of the Ministry of Health. Although the Ministry of Health is responsible for the oversight of health care services, the policy of devolution divides responsibilities among local agencies, including health planning and programing, fiscal duties, and direct management of health services. This decentralization proposes difficulties in collecting information at the national level.[176] The Inter-Territorial Council's Commission on Public Health works to establish health care policies according to recommendations by technical working groups via letters, meetings, and conferences. The Technical Working Group on Vaccines review data on vaccine preventable diseases and proposes recommendations for policies.[176] No additional groups outside the government propose recommendations. Recommendations must be approved by the Commission of Public Health and then by the Inter-Territorial Council, at which point they are incorporated into the National Immunization Schedule.[219]
The Spanish Association of Pediatrics, in conjunction with the Spanish Medicines Agency, outlines specifications for vaccination schedules and policies and provides a history of vaccination policies implemented in the past, as well as legislature pertaining to the public currently. Spain's Constitution does not mandate vaccination, so it is voluntary unless authorities require compulsory vaccination in the case of epidemics.[221] In 1921, vaccination became mandatory for smallpox, and in 1944 the Bases Health Act mandated compulsory vaccination for diphtheria and smallpox, but was suspended in 1979 after the elimination of the threat of an epidemic.[221] The first systematic immunization schedule for the provinces of Spain was established in 1975 and has continuously been updated by each autonomous community in regard to doses at certain ages and recommendation of additional vaccine not proposed in the schedule.[221]
The 2015 schedule proposed the newest change with the inclusion of pneumococcal vaccine for children under 12 months. For 2016, the schedule plans to propose a vaccine against varicella in children at 12–15 months and 3–4 years. Furthermore, the General Health Law of 1986 echoes Article 40.2 from the Constitution guaranteeing the right to the protection of health, and states employers must provide vaccines to workers if they are at risk of exposure.[222] Due to vaccination coverage in each Community, there is little anti-vaccine activity or opposition to the current schedule, and no organized groups against vaccines.[219] The universal public health care provides coverage for all residents, while central and regional support programs extend coverage to immigrant populations. However, no national funds are granted to the Communities for vaccine purchases. Vaccines are financed from taxes, and paid in full by the Community government.[219] Law 21 in Article 2.6 establishes the need for proper clinical documentation and informed consent by the patient, although written informed consent is not mandated in the verbal request of a vaccine for a minor.[223] The autonomous regions collect data, from either electronic registries or written physician charts, to calculate immunization coverage.[219]
Switzerland
editThe Swiss vaccination schedule and recommendations are developed by the Federal Vaccination Commission and the Federal Office of Public Health in collaboration with the cantons.[224]
Minors aged 12 and older may consent to immunization with the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine without parental approval.[225]
Tanzania
editAccording to the World Health Organization vaccination coverage in Tanzania was more than 90% in 2012.[226] An Electronic Immunisation Register has been established, which permits online access to the medical records of mothers and infants, enabling vaccination teams in remote areas to operate more effectively, especially with nomadic people. It also helps to coordinate stock levels and order new supplies.[227]
United Kingdom
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In the United Kingdom, the purchase and distribution of vaccines is managed centrally, and recommended vaccines are provided for free by the NHS.[229] In the UK, no laws require vaccination of schoolchildren.[229]
Children aged 16 and 17 can consent to immunizations without parental consent.[230] Under the Gillick test, children under 16 can consent to vaccination over parental objections if they demonstrate a mature understanding of the ramifications of the procedure.[231]
United States
edit
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In the United States, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices makes scientific recommendations regarding vaccines and vaccination schedules[234] that the federal government, state governments, and private health insurance companies generally follow.[235] See Vaccination schedule for the schedule recommended in the United States.
All fifty states in the U.S. mandate immunizations for children to enroll in public school, but various exemptions are available depending on the state. All states have exemptions for people who have medical contraindications to vaccines, and all states except for California, Maine, Mississippi, New York, and West Virginia allow religious exemptions,[236] while 16 states allow parents to cite personal, conscientious, philosophical, or other objections.[237]
An increasing number of parents are using religious and philosophical exemptions: researchers have cited this increased use of exemptions as contributing to loss of herd immunity within these communities, and hence an increasing number of disease outbreaks.[238][239][240]
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advises physicians to respect the refusal of parents to vaccinate their child after adequate discussion, unless the child is put at significant risk of harm (e.g., during an epidemic, or after a deep and contaminated puncture wound). Under such circumstances, the AAP states that parental refusal of immunization constitutes a form of medical neglect and should be reported to state child protective services agencies.[241] Several states allow minors to legally consent to vaccination over parental objections under the mature minor doctrine.
Immunizations are compulsory for military enlistment in the U.S.[242][243] However, exceptions exist, but may be determined by an uneven process. The suppression of religious exemptions to the military COVID-19 vaccination mandate was successfully proven by members of the Air Force and overturned in the Sixth Circuit federal court of appeals in September 2022, when evidence was presented that more than 99% of requests for religious exceptions were systematically denied approval, though other kinds of exemption requests were more often granted.[244][245] The judge had previously awarded class action status to the case, extending the suit to cover an estimated more than 12,000 joint plaintiffs.
All vaccines recommended by the U.S. government for its citizens are required for green card applicants.[246] This requirement stirred controversy over related costs when, in July 2008, it was applied to the HPV vaccine. In addition, the 13 other required vaccines prevent highly contagious diseases communicable through the respiratory route, while HPV is spread only through sexual contact.[247] In November 2009, this requirement was canceled.[248]
Though the federal guidelines do not require written consent to receive a vaccination, they do require doctors give the recipients or legal representatives a Vaccine Information Statement (VIS). Specific informed consent laws are made by the states.[86][249]
Schools
editThe United States has a long history of school vaccination requirements. The first school vaccination requirement was enacted in the 1850s in Massachusetts to prevent the spread of smallpox.[250] The school vaccination requirement was put in place after the compulsory school attendance law caused a rapid increase in the number of children in public schools, increasing the risk of smallpox outbreaks. The early movement towards school vaccination laws began at the local level including counties, cities, and boards of education. By 1827, Boston had become the first city to mandate that all children entering public schools show proof of vaccination.[251] In addition, in 1855 the Massachusetts General Court had established its own statewide vaccination requirements for all students entering school, this influenced other states to implement similar statewide vaccination laws in schools as seen in New York in 1862, Connecticut in 1872, Pennsylvania in 1895, and later the Midwest, South, and the Western United States. By 1963, 20 states had school vaccination laws.[251]
These vaccination laws resulted in political debates throughout the United States, as those opposed to vaccination sought to repeal local policies and state laws.[252] An example of this political controversy occurred in 1893, in Chicago, where less than ten percent of the children were vaccinated, despite the twelve-year-old state law.[251] Resistance was seen at the local level of the school district as some local school boards and superintendents opposed the state vaccination laws, leading the state board health inspectors to examine vaccination policies in schools. Resistance proceeded during the mid-1900s and in 1977 a nationwide Childhood Immunization Initiative was developed with the goal of increasing vaccination rates among children to ninety percent by 1979. During the two-year period of observation, the initiative reviewed the immunization records of more than 28 million children and vaccinated children who had not received the recommended vaccines.[253]
In 1922, the constitutionality of childhood vaccination was examined in the Supreme Court case Zucht v. King. The court decided that a school could deny admission to children who failed to provide a certification of vaccination for the protection of the public health.[253] In 1987, there was a measles epidemic in Maricopa County, Arizona, and Maricopa County Health Department v. Harmon examined the arguments of an individual's right to education over the state's need to protect against the spread of disease. The court decided that it is prudent to take action to combat the spread of disease by denying unvaccinated children a place in school until the risk for the spread of measles had passed.[253]
Schools in the United States require an updated immunization record for all incoming and returning students. While all states require an immunization record, this does not mean all students must get vaccinated. Exemptions are determined at a state level. In the United States, exemptions take one of three forms: medical, in which a vaccine is contraindicated because of a component ingredient allergy or existing medical condition; religious; and personal philosophical opposition. As of 2019, 45 states allow religious exemptions, with some states requiring proof of religious membership. Until 2019, only Mississippi, West Virginia and California did not permit religious exemptions.[254] However, the 2019 measles outbreak led to the repeal of religious exemptions in the state of New York and for the MMR vaccination in the state of Washington. Prior to 2019, 18 states allowed personal or philosophical opposition to vaccination, but the measles outbreak also led to the repeal of these exemptions in many states.[237] Research studies have found a correlation between the rise of vaccine-preventable diseases and non-medical exemptions from school vaccination requirements.[255][256]
Mandatory vaccinations for attending public schools have received criticism. Parents say that vaccine mandates to attend public schools prevent one's right to choose, especially if the vaccinations could be harmful.[257] Some people believe being forced to get a vaccination could cause trauma, and may lead to not seeking medical care/attention ever again.[258] In the constitutional law, some states have the liberty to withdraw to public health regulations, which includes mandatory vaccination laws that threaten fines. Certain laws are being looked at for immunization requirements, and are trying to be changed, but cannot succeed due to legal challenges.[259] After California removed non-medical exemptions for school entrance, lawsuits were filed arguing for the right for children to attend school regardless of their vaccination history, and to suspend the bill's implementation altogether.[259] However, all such lawsuits ultimately failed.[260]
As of 2022, 300 American colleges and universities mandate that their students receive a COVID-19 booster.[261] A study in the Journal of Medical Ethics concludes that the cost of these mandates likely outweigh the benefits.[262] For example, to prevent one COVID hospitalization over a 6-month period, 31,000 to 42,000 adults in that age group would have to get a third mRNA booster; and those boosters will result in at least 18 "serious adverse events" (SAEs) for that single prevented hospitalization.[262]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ "State Immunization Laws for Healthcare Workers and Patients | CDC". 2.cdc.gov. 25 September 2018. Archived from the original on 9 July 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ "What Colleges Require the COVID-19 Vaccine? | BestColleges". Bestcolleges.com. 11 October 2021. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ "Coronavirus immunisation programme". Norwegian Institute of Public Health. Archived from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ CDC (19 June 2022). "COVID-19 Vaccination". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 9 July 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ "Diseases & Vaccines | immunizecanada". immunize.ca. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ Editorial Board (16 February 2016). "Vaccines save lives – and money". VaccinesToday. Archived from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2022.
- ^ "Vaccines Save Lives". AHIP. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2022.
- ^ Legislatures, National Conference of State. "Immunizations Policy Issues Overview". Ncsl.org. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
- ^ a b Hendrix, Kristin S.; Sturm, Lynne A.; Zimet, Gregory D.; Meslin, Eric M. (February 2016). "Ethics and Childhood Vaccination Policy in the United States". American Journal of Public Health. 106 (2): 273–278. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302952. PMC 4815604. PMID 26691123.
- ^ a b Obasi Chinedu (October 2018). Immunization in Nigeria (Report). Public Health Nigeria. Archived from the original on 29 October 2018. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
- ^ UNICEF (February 2014). Global Immunization Data (PDF) (Report). World Health Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ "Frequently asked questions and answers on smallpox". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ Peltola, Heikki; Jokinen, Sari; Paunio, Mikko; Hovi, Tapani; Davidkin, Irja (December 2008). "Measles, mumps, and rubella in Finland: 25 years of a nationwide elimination programme". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 8 (12): 796–803. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(08)70282-2. PMID 19022194.
- ^ Caroline Kraaijvanger (15 October 2010). "Runderpest is niet meer". Scientias (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 14 August 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ "GPEI-Strategy". polioeradication.org. Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
- ^ Chris van Mersbergen (26 August 2020). "Afrika heeft polio verslagen, dankzij de mede door Bill Gates betaalde vaccins". Het Parool (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ Bauch, Chris T.; Earn, David J. D. (7 September 2004). "Vaccination and the theory of games". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (36): 13391–13394. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10113391B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403823101. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 516577. PMID 15329411.
- ^ Damnjanović, Kaja; Graeber, Johanna; Ilić, Sandra; Lam, Wing Y.; Lep, Žan; Morales, Sara; Pulkkinen, Tero; Vingerhoets, Loes (13 June 2018). "Parental Decision-Making on Childhood Vaccination". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 735. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00735. PMC 600888. PMID 29951010.
- ^ Fine PE, Clarkson JA (December 1986). "Individual versus public priorities in the determination of optimal vaccination policies". American Journal of Epidemiology. 124 (6): 1012–20. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114471. PMID 3096132.
- ^ Shim, Eunha; Chapman, Gretchen B.; Townsend, Jeffrey P.; Galvani, Alison P. (7 September 2012). "The influence of altruism on influenza vaccination decisions". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 9 (74): 2234–2243. doi:10.1098/rsif.2012.0115. PMC 3405754. PMID 22496100.
- ^ Bauch CT, Galvani AP, Earn DJ (September 2003). "Group interest versus self-interest in smallpox vaccination policy". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (18): 10564–7. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10010564B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1731324100. PMC 193525. PMID 12920181.
- ^ Vardavas R, Breban R, Blower S (May 2007). "Can influenza epidemics be prevented by voluntary vaccination?". PLOS Computational Biology. 3 (5): e85. Bibcode:2007PLSCB...3...85V. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030085. PMC 1864996. PMID 17480117.
- ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (August 2014). "Parent's Guide to Childhood Immunizations" (PDF). Department of Health and Human Services. CS250472. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
- ^ "WHO – Ethical considerations for vaccination programmes in acute humanitarian emergencies". Who.int. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ a b Hunziker, Patrick (24 July 2021). "Personalized-dose Covid-19 vaccination in a wave of virus Variants of Concern: Trading individual efficacy for societal benefit". Precision Nanomedicine. 4 (3): 805–820. doi:10.33218/001c.26101. ISSN 2639-9431. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
- ^ Vannice, Kirsten; Wilder-Smith, Annelies; Hombach, Joachim (16 August 2018). "Fractional-Dose Yellow Fever Vaccination — Advancing the Evidence Base". New England Journal of Medicine. 379 (7): 603–605. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1803433. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 29995585. S2CID 205114579.
- ^ Nelson, Katherine S.; Janssen, Julia M.; Troy, Stephanie B.; Maldonado, Yvonne (January 2012). "Intradermal fractional dose inactivated polio vaccine: A review of the literature". Vaccine. 30 (2): 121–125. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.018. PMID 22100886.
- ^ Chen, Zhimin; Liu, Kaihui; Liu, Xiuxiang; Lou, Yijun (February 2020). "Modelling epidemics with fractional-dose vaccination in response to limited vaccine supply". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 486: 110085. Bibcode:2020JThBi.48610085C. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.110085. hdl:10397/94076. PMID 31758966. S2CID 208254350.
- ^ a b Amin AN, Parra MT, Kim-Farley R, Fielding JE (2012). "Ethical Issues Concerning Vaccination Requirements". Public Health Reviews. 34. doi:10.1007/BF03391666.
- ^ a b c Wolfe RM, Sharp LK (August 2002). "Anti-vaccinationists past and present". BMJ. 325 (7361): 430–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7361.430. PMC 1123944. PMID 12193361.
- ^ Mariner WK, Annas GJ, Glantz LH (April 2005). "Jacobson v Massachusetts: it's not your great-great-grandfather's public health law". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (4): 581–90. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.055160. PMC 1449224. PMID 15798113.
- ^ Walkinshaw E (November 2011). "Mandatory vaccinations: The international landscape". CMAJ. 183 (16): E1167–8. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-3993. PMC 3216445. PMID 21989473.
- ^ "State Vaccination Exemptions for Children Entering Public Schools – Vaccines – ProCon.org". vaccines.procon.org. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
- ^ Applications 47621/13, 3867/14, 73094/14, 19306/15, 19298/15, and 43883/15 (ECtHR April 8, 2021).
- ^ Chappell, Bill (8 April 2021). "European Court Backs Mandatory Vaccinations For Children". NPR. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
- ^ Utrilla, Dolores (8 April 2021). "Op-Ed: "It's about proportionality! Strasbourg clarifies human rights standards for compulsory vaccination programmes"". EU Law Live. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
- ^ "China's use of force and coercion to drive up its COVID-19 vaccination rate is not the answer". Human Rights Watch. 28 September 2021. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Salmon DA, Teret SP, MacIntyre CR, Salisbury D, Burgess MA, Halsey NA (February 2006). "Compulsory vaccination and conscientious or philosophical exemptions: past, present, and future". Lancet. 367 (9508): 436–42. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68144-0. PMID 16458770. S2CID 19344405.
- ^ Meade T (2009). "'Living Worse and Costing More': Resistance and Riot in Rio de Janeiro, 1890–1917". Journal of Latin American Studies. 21 (1–2): 241–266. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00014784. S2CID 145241097.
- ^ Briss PA, Rodewald LE, Hinman AR, Shefer AM, Strikas RA, Bernier RR, Carande-Kulis VG, Yusuf HR, Ndiaye SM, Williams SM (January 2000). "Reviews of evidence regarding interventions to improve vaccination coverage in children, adolescents, and adults. The Task Force on Community Preventive Services". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 18 (1 Suppl): 97–140. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(99)00118-X. PMID 10806982. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ "Mandatory Influenza Vaccination of Healthcare Workers: A 5-Year Study". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 2010.
- ^ Ro, Christine. "Why mandatory vaccination is nothing new". Bbc.com. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Abramson, Brian Dean (2019). "8". Vaccine, Vaccination, and Immunization Law. Bloomberg Law. p. 11.
- ^ Abramson, Brian Dean (2019). "9". Vaccine, Vaccination, and Immunization Law. Bloomberg Law. p. 44.
- ^ a b Schuetze, Christopher F. (14 November 2021). "Austria's new lockdown confines the unvaccinated to their homes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ Horowitz, Jason; Eddy, Melissa (19 November 2021). "Austria Announces Covid Vaccine Mandate, Crossing a Threshold for Europe". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
- ^ Caplan, Arthur L. "Do Children Have Vaccination Rights?". Medscape Business of Medicine. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
- ^ "Anti-vaccine misinformation denies children's rights". 18 April 2018. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
- ^ "Ethics of Vaccinations | High School Bioethics". med.nyu.edu. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ^ "Should Pediatricians Refuse Unvaccinated Kids?". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
- ^ Bachai, Sabrina (24 June 2014). "NYC Schools Are Now Allowed To Ban Unvaccinated Kids, Rules Federal Judge". Medical Daily. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
- ^ Halperin, Beth; Melnychuk, Ryan; Downie, Jocelyn; MacDonald, Noni (December 2007). "When is it permissible to dismiss a family who refuses vaccines? Legal, ethical and public health perspectives". Paediatrics & Child Health. 12 (10): 843–845. doi:10.1093/pch/12.10.843. PMC 2532570. PMID 19043497.
- ^ Rucoba, Ruben J. (29 August 2016). "How to address vaccine hesitancy: New AAP report says dismissal a last resort". AAP News. Archived from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
- ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (9 April 2019). "New York City Is Requiring Vaccinations Against Measles. Can Officials Do That?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ "Why A Court Once Ordered Kids Vaccinated Against Their Parents' Will". NPR. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
- ^ a b c Lee, Cecilia; Robinson, Joan L. (1 June 2016). "Systematic review of the effect of immunization mandates on uptake of routine childhood immunizations". Journal of Infection. 72 (6): 659–666. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2016.04.002. ISSN 0163-4453. PMID 27063281.
- ^ "Pertussis (Whooping Cough) | Vaccine Knowledge". vk.ovg.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- ^ "FastStats". Cdc.gov. 28 January 2022. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- ^ "Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation Statement on varicella and herpes zoster vaccines" (PDF). webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
- ^ "Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) | CDC". Cdc.gov. 19 August 2021. Archived from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ "Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ Duclos, Philippe; Okwo-Bele, Jean-Marie; Gacic-Dobo, Marta; Cherian, Thomas (14 October 2009). "Global immunization: status, progress, challenges and future". BMC International Health and Human Rights. 9 (1): S2. doi:10.1186/1472-698X-9-S1-S2. ISSN 1472-698X. PMC 2762311. PMID 19828060.
- ^ "Government Regulation". History of Vaccines. Archived from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ Drolet, Mélanie; Bénard, Élodie; Jit, Mark; Hutubessy, Raymond; Brisson, Marc (October 2018). "Model Comparisons of the Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Vaccination: A Systematic Review of the Literature". Value in Health. 21 (10): 1250–1258. doi:10.1016/j.jval.2018.03.014. ISSN 1098-3015. PMID 30314627. S2CID 52977365.
- ^ Hunziker, Patrick (24 July 2021). "Personalized-dose Covid-19 vaccination in a wave of virus Variants of Concern: Trading individual efficacy for societal benefit". Precision Nanomedicine. 4 (3): 805–820. doi:10.33218/001c.26101. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
- ^ Li, Qian; Tang, Biao; Bragazzi, Nicola Luigi; Xiao, Yanni; Wu, Jianhong (1 July 2020). "Modeling the impact of mass influenza vaccination and public health interventions on COVID-19 epidemics with limited detection capability". Mathematical Biosciences. 325: 108378. doi:10.1016/j.mbs.2020.108378. ISSN 0025-5564. PMC 7229764. PMID 32507746.
- ^ Deogaonkar, Rohan; Hutubessy, Raymond; van der Putten, Inge; Evers, Silvia; Jit, Mark (16 October 2012). "Systematic review of studies evaluating the broader economic impact of vaccination in low and middle income countries". BMC Public Health. 12 (1): 878. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-878. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3532196. PMID 23072714.
- ^ a b c Ibuka Y, Li M, Vietri J, Chapman GB, Galvani AP (2014). "Free-riding behavior in vaccination decisions: an experimental study". PLOS ONE. 9 (1): e87164. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...987164I. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087164. PMC 3901764. PMID 24475246.
- ^ Stiglitz, Joseph (2000). Economics of the Public Sector. Territory Rights Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-393-96651-0.
- ^ Serpell L, Green J (May 2006). "Parental decision-making in childhood vaccination". Vaccine. 24 (19): 4041–6. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.02.037. PMID 16530892.
- ^ Francis PJ (1997). "Dynamic epidemiology and the market for vaccinations". Journal of Public Economics. 63 (3): 383–406. doi:10.1016/S0047-2727(96)01586-1.
- ^ Deogaonkar R, Hutubessy R, van der Putten I, Evers S, Jit M (October 2012). "Systematic review of studies evaluating the broader economic impact of vaccination in low and middle income countries". BMC Public Health. 12: 878. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-878. PMC 3532196. PMID 23072714.
- ^ Francis PJ (2004). "Optimal tax/subsidy combinations for the flu season". Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control. 28 (10): 2037–2054. doi:10.1016/j.jedc.2003.08.001.
- ^ Oraby T, Thampi V, Bauch CT (April 2014). "The influence of social norms on the dynamics of vaccinating behaviour for paediatric infectious diseases". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 281 (1780): 20133172. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3172. PMC 4078885. PMID 24523276.
- ^ Meszaros JR, Asch DA, Baron J, Hershey JC, Kunreuther H, Schwartz-Buzaglo J (June 1996). "Cognitive processes and the decisions of some parents to forego pertussis vaccination for their children". Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 49 (6): 697–703. doi:10.1016/0895-4356(96)00007-8. PMID 8656233.
- ^ "Vaccination and trust". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
- ^ Fischer, Kathrin (13 July 2023). "How to tackle vaccine misinformation: what works?". NIHR Evidence. doi:10.3310/nihrevidence_58944. Archived from the original on 26 December 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- ^ Whitehead, Hannah S.; French, Clare E.; Caldwell, Deborah M.; Letley, Louise; Mounier-Jack, Sandra (January 2023). "A systematic review of communication interventions for countering vaccine misinformation". Vaccine. 41 (5): 1018–1034. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.12.059. ISSN 0264-410X. PMC 9829031. PMID 36628653. Archived from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- ^ Zhou F, Santoli J, Messonnier ML, Yusuf HR, Shefer A, Chu SY, Rodewald L, Harpaz R (December 2005). "Economic evaluation of the 7-vaccine routine childhood immunization schedule in the United States, 2001". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 159 (12): 1136–44. doi:10.1001/archpedi.159.12.1136. PMID 16330737.
- ^ a b c d e "Pneumokokkikonjugaattirokote eli PCV-rokote – Rokottaminen – THL". Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos (in Finnish). Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ a b c d Zhou F; Shefer A; Wenger J; Messonnier M; Wang LY; Lopez A; Moore M; Murphy TV; Cortese M; Rodewald L (April 2014). "Economic evaluation of the routine childhood immunization program in the United States, 2009". Pediatrics. 133 (4): 577–85. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-0698. PMID 24590750.
- ^ Gargano LM, Tate JE, Parashar UD, Omer SB, Cookson ST (2015). "Comparison of impact and cost-effectiveness of rotavirus supplementary and routine immunization in a complex humanitarian emergency, Somali case study". Conflict and Health. 9: 5. doi:10.1186/s13031-015-0032-y. PMC 4331177. PMID 25691915.
- ^ van Hoek AJ, Campbell H, Amirthalingam G, Andrews N, Miller E (July 2016). "Cost-effectiveness and programmatic benefits of maternal vaccination against pertussis in England" (PDF). The Journal of Infection. 73 (1): 28–37. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2016.04.012. PMID 27108802. S2CID 22494052. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ Diop A, Atherly D, Faye A, Lamine Sall F, Clark AD, Nadiel L, Yade B, Ndiaye M, Fafa Cissé M, Ba M (May 2015). "Estimated impact and cost-effectiveness of rotavirus vaccination in Senegal: A country-led analysis". Vaccine. 33 (Suppl 1): A119–25. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.12.065. PMID 25919151.
- ^ Ehreth J (January 2003). "The global value of vaccination". Vaccine. 21 (7–8): 596–600. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00623-0. PMID 12531324.
- ^ a b "Ethical Issues and Vaccines". History of Vaccines. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ^ Lees, KA; Wortley, PM; Coughlin, SS (December 2005). "Comparison of racial/ethnic disparities in adult immunization and cancer screening". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 29 (5): 404–11. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.08.009. PMID 16376703.
- ^ Doherty TM, Connolly MP, Del Giudice G, Flamaing J, Goronzy JJ, Grubeck-Loebenstein B, Lambert PH, Maggi S, McElhaney JE, Nagai H, Schaffner W, Schmidt-Ott R, Walsh E, Di Pasquale A (2018). "Vaccination programs for older adults in an era of demographic change". European Geriatric Medicine. 9 (3): 289–300. doi:10.1007/s41999-018-0040-8. PMC 5972173. PMID 29887922.
- ^ Bonanni P, Picazo JJ, Rémy V (12 August 2015). "The intangible benefits of vaccination – what is the true economic value of vaccination?". Journal of Market Access & Health Policy. 3: 26964. doi:10.3402/jmahp.v3.26964. PMC 4802696. PMID 27123182.
- ^ Lipsitch M, Siber GR (June 2016). "How Can Vaccines Contribute to Solving the Antimicrobial Resistance Problem?". mBio. 7 (3). doi:10.1128/mBio.00428-16. PMC 4959668. PMID 27273824.
- ^ Ethgen O, Cornier M, Chriv E, Baron-Papillon F (August 2016). "The cost of vaccination throughout life: A western European overview". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 12 (8): 2029–2037. doi:10.1080/21645515.2016.1154649. PMC 4994732. PMID 27050111.
- ^ Preaud E, Durand L, Macabeo B, Farkas N, Sloesen B, Palache A, Shupo F, Samson SI (August 2014). "Annual public health and economic benefits of seasonal influenza vaccination: a European estimate". BMC Public Health. 14: 813. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-813. PMC 4141103. PMID 25103091.
- ^ "Global Immunization Vision and Strategy". Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. World Health Organization. 1 December 2013. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ "Global Vaccine Action Plan 2011 – 2020". Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. World Health Organization. 5 February 2015. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ a b "Calendario Nacional de Vacunación". Argentina.gob.ar (in Spanish). 20 February 2017. Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ a b "Calendario Nacional de Vacunación 2022" (PDF). Bancos.salud.gob.ar. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 July 2022. Retrieved 27 July 2022.
- ^ "Preguntas frecuentes sobre la vacuna contra la COVID-19". Argentina.gob.ar (in Spanish). 21 January 2021. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ^ Health, Australian Government Department of (16 October 2017). "National Immunisation Program Schedule". Australian Government Department of Health. Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
- ^ "No Jab No Play, No Jab No Pay | NCIRS". Ncirs.org.au. Archived from the original on 2 August 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ "NSW Legislation". Legislation.nsw.gov.au. Archived from the original on 3 December 2002. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
- ^ Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008, archived from the original on 7 October 2019, retrieved 7 October 2019
- ^ "Public Health Amendment (Immunisation Requirements for Enrolment) Act 2019" (PDF). legislation.wa.gov.au. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "Factbox: Countries making COVID-19 vaccines mandatory". Reuters. 15 November 2021. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
- ^ "Austria suspends mandatory Covid vaccine law". France 24. 9 March 2022. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af "Vaccine Scheduler | ECDC". vaccine-schedule.ecdc.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2 September 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "BCG World Atlas". Bcgatlas.org. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
- ^ "Vacinação: quais são as vacinas, para quê servem, por que vacinar, mitos". Saude.gov.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
- ^ "Estatuto da criança e do adolescente" (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
- ^ "Obter Benefícios do Programa Bolsa Família – Português (Brasil)". Gov.br. Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
- ^ "Cinco estados brasileiros já adotam o 'passaporte da vacina'" [Five Brazilian states have already adopted the 'vaccine passport']. CNN Brazil (in Portuguese). 12 October 2021. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
- ^ "Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine: Canadian Immunization Guide". 18 July 2007. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
- ^ a b c "Measles outbreak: The loopholes in Canada's vaccination laws". CBC. Archived from the original on 29 August 2019. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
- ^ "Recommended immunization schedules: Canadian Immunization Guide". 18 July 2007. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
- ^ "Ecuador makes COVID-19 vaccination obligatory". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2021.|date=23 December 2021
- ^ "France makes 11 child vaccines compulsory: no vaccines, no school". Efe.com. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
- ^ Welle (http://www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Germany: Law mandating vaccines in schools takes effect | DW | 1 March 2020". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ^ a b "Ghana to make COVID-19 vaccine mandatory from January". Reuters. 28 November 2021. Archived from the original on 28 November 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- ^ "Peraturan Menteri Kesehatan Republik Indonesia Nomor 12 Tahun 2017 Tentang Penyelanggaraan Imunisasi" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Kemenkes. 6 February 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019. | url-status=live
- ^ "Mandatory vaccinations: Italian parents will no longer need to provide doctor's note". The Local Italy. 6 July 2018. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
- ^ a b c d e "予防接種法 (法令番号：昭和二十三年法律第六十八号); Immunization Act (Law number: Act No. 68 of 1948)". Japanese Law Translation (日本法令外国語訳データベースシステム). Ministry of Justice (Japan). 7 November 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2020The translated law from Japanese to English is the latest version as of February 2020, followed by 平成二十五年法律第百三号 改正 (Amendment of Act No. 103 of 2013).
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)[permanent dead link] - ^ a b c d "予防接種法施行令（昭和二十三年政令第百九十七号）第1条: 政令で定めるＡ類疾病、第1条の2: 政令で定めるＢ類疾病、第1条の3: 市町村長が予防接種を行う疾病及びその対象者" [Immunization Act Implementation Order (Law number: Order No. 197 of 1948) | Article 1: Category A diseases under the Order; Article 1–2: Category B diseases under the Order; Article 1–3: vaccine recipients and vaccination schedule under city mayors' initiatives]. e-Gov Law Database (in Japanese). Administrative Management Bureau, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. 30 March 2018. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
平成三十年政令第百六号改正、2018年4月1日施行分 (version information: Amendment of Order No. 106 of 2018)
- ^ a b "定期接種と任意接種のワクチン" [Scheduled and non-legal vaccination] (PDF). 日本小児科学会の「知っておきたいわくちん情報」 (2). 公益社団法人 日本小児科学会 (Japan Pedriatric Society). 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ a b Reichert, Thomas A.; Sugaya, Norio; Fedson, David S.; Glezen, W. Paul; Simonsen, Lone; Tashiro, Masato (22 March 2001). "The Japanese Experience with Vaccinating Schoolchildren against Influenza". New England Journal of Medicine. 344 (12): 889–896. doi:10.1056/NEJM200103223441204. PMID 11259722.
- ^ "COVID-19 Vaccines". Mhlw.go.jp. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
Although we encourage all citizens to receive the COVID-19 vaccination, it is not compulsory or mandatory.
- ^ "Malawi makes COVID-19 vaccines mandatory for frontline workers". Reuters. 16 December 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2024.
- ^ a b c d "The Countries Where Vaccination Is Mandatory". Statista.co. 16 July 2021. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
- ^ Grigoryan, Astghik (9 May 2019). "Russia: Government Expanding Vaccination for Measles Amid Outbreak in Neighboring Countries | Global Legal Monitor". Loc.gov. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
- ^ "KALENDAR OBAVEZNIH IMUNIZACIJA LICA ODREĐENOG UZRASTA". Zcue.rs (in Serbian). Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
- ^ "Serbia – Vaccination policy". Efvv.eu. Archived from the original on 12 October 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2019.
- ^ "Serbia introduces COVID-19 passes for indoor cafes and restaurants". Reuters. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
- ^ a b Nel, Michelle (12 May 2005). "The great vaccination debate". The M&G Online. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
- ^ "COVID-19 / Novel Coronavirus". South African Government. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ^ "Coronavirus: the situation in Switzerland". Swissinfo. Archived from the original on 6 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
- ^ Ingrassia, Víctor (17 December 2018). "Todo lo que hay que saber de la nueva ley de vacunación en Argentina" (in Spanish). Infobae. Archived from the original on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
- ^ Gentil, Andrea (21 December 2018). "Cómo es la nueva ley de vacunas" (in Spanish). Noticias. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
- ^ "National Immunisation Program Schedule". 1 April 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
- ^ Li, A.; Toll, M. (2020). "Removing conscientious objection: The impact of 'No Jab No Pay' and 'No Jab No Play' vaccine policies in Australia". Preventive Medicine. 145: 106406. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106406. PMID 33388333. S2CID 230489130. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
- ^ Peatling S (13 April 2015). "Support for government push to withdraw welfare payments from anti vaccination parents". Federal Politics. Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ "About the Program". Immunise Australia Program. Australian Government, Department of Health. 4 September 2014. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ "Free vaccine Victoria – Criteria for eligibility". Health. State Government of Victoria. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ "Your child's immunisation schedule". Australian Childhood Immunisation Register for health professionals. Australian Government Department of Human Services. 20 March 2014. Archived from the original on 16 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ "Age of Consent for Vaccinations". Queensland Health. Government of Queensland. 15 December 2016. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- ^ a b c Choahan, Neelima (20 August 2018). "Children and consent for medical treatment". Royal Australian College of General Practitioners. Archived from the original on 7 September 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- ^ Samantha Maiden (25 November 2020). "PM Scott Morrison signals tough new COVID-19 vaccine rules for international travellers who fly to Australia". News.com.au. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ "[2021] FWCFB 6015". Fwc.gov.au. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
- ^ "Nationales Impfgremium" (in German). Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ "Impfung: Kinder ab 14 können selbst entscheiden" [Vaccination: Children can decide for themselves at 14]. Kurier (in German). 1 June 2021. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ "Programa Nacional de Imunizações - Vacinação". Ministério da Saúde (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 10 November 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
- ^ "Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (Lei Fed. 8069)". Planalto.gov.br. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
Art 14, Para 1: É obrigatória a vacinação das crianças nos casos recomendados pelas autoridades sanitárias.
- ^ "Secom faz propaganda com frase de Bolsonaro contra obrigatoriedade da vacina [01/09/2020]". noticias.uol.com.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
Pais que deixarem de levar os filhos para a vacinação obrigatória correm o risco de ser multados ou processados por negligência e maus tratos.
- ^ "CALENDÁRIO NACIONAL DE VACINAÇÃO - 2019" (PDF). Retrieved 7 September 2023.
- ^ a b c d "Immunization schedule tool". Public Health Agency of Canada. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
- ^ "Protocole d'immunisation du Québec (PIQ) / Calendrier régulier de vaccination". Gouvernement du Québec, 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ "Les garçons désormais vaccinés contre le VPH au Québec". ICI Quebec / Radio-Canada, 1 Sept. 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ Parry, J (1 September 2014). "China enters the global vaccine market". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 92 (9): 626–627. doi:10.2471/BLT.14.020914. PMC 4208573. PMID 25378751.
- ^ Zheng, Jingshan; Zhou, Yuqing; Wang, Huaqing; Liang, Xiaofeng (April 2010). "The role of the China Experts Advisory Committee on Immunization Program". Vaccine. 28: A84–A87. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.039. PMID 20413004.
- ^ Fang, Hai; Yang, Li; Zhang, Huyang; Li, Chenyang; Wen, Liankui; Sun, Li; Hanson, Kara; Meng, Qingyue (1 July 2017). "Strengthening health system to improve immunization for migrants in China". International Journal for Equity in Health. 16 (1): 19. doi:10.1186/s12939-016-0504-8. PMC 5493864. PMID 28666442.
- ^ Zheng, Yaming; Rodewald, Lance; Yang, Juan; Qin, Ying; Pang, Mingfan; Feng, Luzhao; Yu, Hongjie (4 October 2018). "The landscape of vaccines in China: history, classification, supply, and price". BMC Infectious Diseases. 18 (1): 502. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3422-0. PMC 6172750. PMID 30286735.
- ^ Zhang, Xinyi; Syeda, Zerin Imam; Jing, Zhengyue; Xu, Qiongqiong; Sun, Long; Xu, Lingzhong; Zhou, Chengchao (22 June 2018). "Rural-urban disparity in category II vaccination among children under five years of age: evidence from a survey in Shandong, China". International Journal for Equity in Health. 17 (1): 87. doi:10.1186/s12939-018-0802-4. PMC 6013881. PMID 29929503.
- ^ "Over 650,000 faulty vaccine doses recalled in China". South China POst. 7 November 2018. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ "Changsheng Bio-tech, the vaccine maker behind China's latest public health scare". South China Morning Post. 23 July 2018. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ^ "Chinese President Xi Jinping orders crackdown over 'appalling' vaccine scandal". South China Morning Post. 23 July 2018. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ Zheng, William (24 December 2018). "China's lawmakers consider 'strictest' rules on vaccine industry after scandals". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
- ^ "Costa Rica issues COVID-19 vaccine requirement for children". Reuters. 6 November 2021. Archived from the original on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
- ^ "Vaccine Scheduler| ECDC". vaccine-schedule.ecdc.europa.eu. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
- ^ "Rokotusohjelman historia – Rokottaminen – THL". Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos (in Finnish). Retrieved 7 November 2019.
- ^ "THL – HPV, or human papillomavirus vaccine". thl.fi. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ "Vaccinating boys against HPV (human papillomavirus) has started - Press release - THL". Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Finland. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Stahl JP, Cohen R, Denis F, Gaudelus J, Lery T, Lepetit H, Martinot A (February 2013). "Vaccination against meningococcus C. vaccinal coverage in the French target population". Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses. 43 (2): 75–80. doi:10.1016/j.medmal.2013.01.001. PMID 23428390.
- ^ Loulergue P, Floret D, Launay O (July 2015). "Strategies for decision-making on vaccine use: the French experience". Expert Review of Vaccines. 14 (7): 917–22. doi:10.1586/14760584.2015.1035650. PMID 25913015. S2CID 19850490.
- ^ a b c Rouillon E (10 October 2014). "Charges Against French Parents Stir Mandatory Vaccination Debate". VICE NEWS. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- ^ a b Greenhouse E (4 February 2015). "How France Is Handling Its Own Vaccine Debate". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
- ^ ""The Fight against Poverty: "The Challenge Is to Preserve Our Social Model and Its Underlying Values""". General Assembly on Social Work. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
- ^ a b c d "Germany" (PDF). Vaccination European New Integrated Collaboration Effort. Venice III. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^ "The German Standing Committee of Vaccination". Robert Koch Institut. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^ a b c d Ricciardi GW; Toumi M; Weil-Olivier C; Ruitenberg EJ; Dankó D; Duru G; Picazo J; Zöllner Y; Poland G; Drummond M (January 2015). "Comparison of NITAG policies and working processes in selected developed countries". Vaccine. 33 (1): 3–11. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.09.023. PMID 25258100.
- ^ "Vaccinations". G-BA. Bermeinsamer Bundesausschuss. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ Kerwat, Klaus; Just, Martin; Wulf, Hinnerk (5 March 2009). "Krankenhaushygiene – Das Infektionsschutzgesetz" [The German Protection against Infection Act (Infektionsschutzgesetz (IfSG))]. Anästhesiologie, Intensivmedizin, Notfallmedizin, Schmerztherapie (in German). 44 (3): 182–183. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1215548. PMID 19266418. S2CID 206294740.
- ^ a b c "Recommendations of the Standing Committee on Vaccinations STIKO at the Robert Koch Institute" (PDF). Epidemiologisches Bulletin. Robert Koch Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^ Schulenburg, Dirk; Eibl, Katharina (27 November 2017). "Einwilligung in die ärztliche Behandlung von Kindern und Jugendlichen" [Consent in the medical treatment of children and youth]. Rheinisches Ärzteblatt (in German). Retrieved 12 March 2019.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Maronde B (10 July 2013). "Juristische Fallen beim Impfen: Aufklärung und Einwilligung" [Legal Pitfalls with Vaccination: Informing and Consenting]. Medical Tribune (in German). Süddeutscher Verlag. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ Brady, Kate (14 November 2019). "Germany makes measles vaccination compulsory". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ "Immunisations for children and young people". Citizens Information. Citizens Information Board, Republic of Ireland. 16 September 2014. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ a b Webicine Journalists (19 December 2014). "Italy Embraces 'life-course Immunisation". Vaccines Today. EFPIA. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- ^ a b c d e "Ministero Della Salute". Italian Ministry of Health. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- ^ a b Haverkate, M.; d'Ancona, F.; Giambi, C.; Johansen, K.; Lopalco, P. L.; Cozza, V.; Appelgren, E.; et al. (Venice Project Gat Collective) (2012). "Mandatory And Recommended Vaccination In The EU, Iceland And Norway: Results Of The Venice 2010 Survey On The Ways Of Implementing National Vaccination Programmes". Eurosurveillance. 17 (22). doi:10.2807/ese.17.22.20183-en. PMID 22687916.
- ^ a b Bonanni P, Ferro A, Guerra R, Iannazzo S, Odone A, Pompa MG, Rizzuto E, Signorelli C (July 2013). "Vaccine coverage in Italy and assessment of the 2012–2014 National Immunization Prevention Plan". Epidemiologia e Prevenzione. 39 (4 Suppl 1): 146–58. PMID 26499433.
- ^ a b c d e Margottini L (7 December 2015). "New Vaccination Strategy Stirs Controversy in Italy". Science Insider. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- ^ "Italy Senate overturns mandatory vaccination law". Financial Times. 6 August 2018. Archived from the original on 17 September 2018. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ^ "Italy's populist coalition renounces anti-vaccination stance amid measles 'emergency'". Telegraph. 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
- ^ a b "予防接種を受けるときの注意" [Legal notice for vaccination] (in Japanese). 東京都中野区 (Nakano City Hall, Tokyo). 6 November 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ^ a b "定期の予防接種における対象者の解釈について（事務連絡）" [Legal age counting system for the routine vaccination (operational notice)] (PDF) (in Japanese). 厚生労働省健康局結核感染症課 (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare). 11 March 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ^ a b "Q 4月1日生まれの児童生徒の学年についてどうなるのでしょうか。" [Q: In which academic year is a schoolchild born on April 1?] (in Japanese). 文部科学省 (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). Retrieved 1 March 2020.
- ^ a b c d e 齋藤昭彦 (Akihiko Saito, Professor at Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University) (6 January 2014). "過去・現在・未来で読み解く，日本の予防接種制度" [Vaccine policy in Japan – past, present and future]. 週刊医学界新聞 (in Japanese) (3058). Igaku-Shoin Ltd. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d "日本のワクチン政策の変遷" [History of vaccination policy in Japan] (PDF). The Value of VACCINE (in Japanese) (改訂版 (revised version)). Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA): 14–19. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ 高木武 (Takeshi Takagi) (1986). "判例研究 : 予防接種禍事件" [Case study: The class action against vaccination malpractices]. 東洋法学 [Toyo Law Review] (in Japanese). 29 (2). Toyo University: 71–76.
- ^ 土井脩 (Osamu Doi, President of PMRJ) (2016). "薬事温故知新 第76回 ジフテリア予防接種禍事件" [Lesson Learned from the diphtheria vaccine lawsuit (Column series 76)] (PDF). 医薬品医療機器レギュラトリーサイエンス. 47 (4). Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Regulatory Science Society of Japan (PMRJ): 284–285. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ 菅谷憲夫 (Norio Sugaya, pediatrician at Nihon Koukan Hospital) (2002). "インフルエンザワクチンの過去，現在，未来" [Influenza of the past, present and future] (PDF). 感染症学雑誌 (The Journal of the Japanese Association for Infectious Diseases). 76 (1): 9–10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ 加藤智章 (Tomoaki Kato, preface at p.4-); 齋藤昭彦 (Akihiko Saito, about the United States at p.6-); 中村安秀 (Yasuhide Nakamura, about developing countries at p.20-); 松本勝明 (Katsuaki Matsumoto, about Germany at p.25-); 福士由紀 (Yuki Fukushi, about China at p.30-) (Autumn 2015). "特集:予防接種の国際比較" [Global comparative study for vaccination] (PDF). 海外社会保障研究 (192). National Institute of Population and Social Security Research (IPSS). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Walkinshaw E (November 2011). "Mandatory vaccinations: The international landscape". CMAJ. 183 (16): E1167–8. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-3993. PMC 3216445. PMID 21989473.
- ^ "Latvia to commence Covid-19 vaccination of 12 to15-year-olds 2 June". Baltic News Network. 1 June 2021. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ "Malawi makes COVID-19 vaccines mandatory for frontline workers". Reuters. 16 December 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2024.
- ^ Roesel S, Banerjee K. School Immunization Programme in Malaysia – 24 February to 4 March 2008 (PDF) (Report). World Health Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ a b c Organization, WHO | World Health. "WHO : Immunization Country Profile". apps.who.int. Archived from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ a b c "Binational vaccine schedule Mexico-USA" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 September 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ "New Zealand Immunisation Schedule". Ministry of Health (New Zealand). Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ^ "Covid 19 coronavirus: Vaccine for teens to be delivered at schools, parents urged to discuss with kids". The New Zealand Herald. 21 June 2021. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ "Immunization in Nigeria". Archived from the original on 29 October 2018. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
- ^ "Pakistan arrests parents for refusing polio vaccine". BBC News. 2 March 2015. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
- ^ "Vacunación en Panamá: Cortizo dice que analizan enviar de licencia sin sueldo a funcionarios no vacunados". TVN. 13 August 2021. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
- ^ "Presidente Cortizo evalúa licencia sin sueldo para funcionarios no vacunados". Telemetro.com. 14 August 2021. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
- ^ "¿Qué alumnos tienen derecho al PASE-U? - IFARHU". 1 March 2021. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ Grigoryan, Astghik (9 May 2019). "Russia: Government Expanding Vaccination for Measles Amid Outbreak in Neighboring Countries | Global Legal Monitor". www.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
- ^ "Putin Rules Out Mandatory Vaccinations". 27 May 2021. Archived from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
- ^ "Samoa makes measles vaccinations compulsory after outbreak kills 32". Pacific Beat. ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 26 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
Authorities have made measles vaccinations compulsory under law and publicly warned people against discouraging others from receiving vaccinations.
- ^ Mrvic T; Petrovec M; Breskvar M; Zupanc TL; Logar M (31 March 2012). Mandatory measles vaccination – are healthcare workers really safe?. 22nd European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. London. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ Irena Grmek Kosnik (2012). "Success of the vaccination campaign in Slovenia" (PDF of slidedeck). International Scientific Working Group on Tick-Borne Encephalitis. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ "South African Vaccination & Immunisation Centre (SAVIC)". 14 August 2017. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017.
- ^ a b c d e Delgado S. "Spain" (PDF). Instituto De Salud Carlos III. Centro Nacional De Epidemiologia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ "Functions". Instituto De Salud Carlos III. Gobierno de España, Minesterio de Economia y Competitividad. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ a b c "CALENDARIOS DE VACUNACIÓN EN ESPAÑA". Vaccination ASP. Asociacíon Españada de Pediatría, Comité Asesor de Vacunas. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ "Occupational Health Regulations". Ministry of Health, Social Services, and Equality. Ministry of Health. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ "Immunisation Schedules in Spain". Vaccination ASP. Asociacíon Españada De Pediatría, Comité Asesor De Vacunas. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ "Vaccinations and prevention". admin.ch. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ "Covid-19: Switzerland to allow children over 12 to be vaccinated without parental consent". The Local. 8 June 2021. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ WHO. "Global Health Observatory Data Repository-Immunization". Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
- ^ "Good data saves lives". Gavi. 2018. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ^ "NHS vaccinations and when to have them". nhs.uk. 31 July 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
- ^ a b Freed GL (2005). "Vaccine policies across the pond: looking at the U.K. and U.S. systems". Health Affairs. 24 (3): 755–7. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.3.755. PMID 15886170.
- ^ "Children and young people: Consent to treatment". National Health Service. 3 March 2016. Archived from the original on 31 January 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2019 – via nhs.uk.
- ^ Griffith, Richard (30 November 2015). "What is Gillick competence?". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 12 (1): 244–247. doi:10.1080/21645515.2015.1091548. PMC 4962726. PMID 26619366.
- ^ "Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for ages 18 years or younger – United States, 2020" (PDF). CDC. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- ^ "Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule for ages 19 years or older – United States, 2020" (PDF). CDC. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
- ^ Smith, Jean Clare (19 April 2010). "The Structure, Role, and Procedures of the U.S. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)". Vaccine. 28 (1): A68–A75. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.037. PMID 20413002.
- ^ Abramson, Brian Dean (2019). "5". Vaccine, Vaccination, and Immunization Law. Bloomberg Law. p. 13.
- ^ "Measles Outbreak: N.Y. Eliminates Religious Exemptions for Vaccinations". The New York Times. 13 June 2019. Archived from the original on 14 June 2019.
- ^ a b "States with Religious and Philosophical Exemptions from School Immunization Requirements". National Conference of State Legislatures. Archived from the original on 18 June 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
- ^ Ciolli A (September 2008). "Mandatory school vaccinations: the role of tort law". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 81 (3): 129–37. PMC 2553651. PMID 18827888.
- ^ May T; Silverman RD (March 2003). "'Clustering of exemptions' as a collective action threat to herd immunity". Vaccine. 21 (11–12): 1048–51. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00627-8. hdl:1805/6156. PMID 12559778.
- ^ Faiola, Anthony; Srinivas, Preethi; Karanam, Yamini; Chartash, David; Doebbeling, Bradley (2014). "Viz Com". Proceedings of the extended abstracts of the 32nd annual ACM conference on Human factors in computing systems – CHI EA '14. pp. 1705–1710. doi:10.1145/2559206.2581332. hdl:1805/6156. ISBN 978-1-4503-2474-8. S2CID 18498065.
- ^ Diekema DS (May 2005). "Responding to parental refusals of immunization of children". Pediatrics. 115 (5): 1428–31. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0316. PMID 15867060.
- ^ Grabenstein, John D.; Pittman, Phillip R.; Greenwood, John T.; Engler, Renata J. M. (2006). "Immunization to Protect the US Armed Forces: Heritage, Current Practice, and Prospects". Epidemiologic Reviews. 28 (1): 3–26. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxj003. PMID 16763072.
- ^ United States Department of Defense. "MilVax homepage". Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved 25 July 2007.
- ^ Morgan, Ryan (14 July 2022). "US judge blocks Air Force from kicking out, punishing thousands of unvaccinated troops". American Military News. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- ^ "Doster v. Kendall, No. 22-3702 (6th Cir. 2022)". Justia Law. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- ^ "Report of Medical Examination and Vaccination Record". USCIS. Archived from the original on 4 March 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ Jordan M (1 October 2008). "Gardasil requirement for immigrants stirs backlash". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 18 December 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2009.
- ^ "HPV vaccine no longer required for green cards". NBC News. 17 November 2009. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ^ "Vaccine Information Statement | Facts About VISs | CDC". Cdc.gov. 3 April 2019. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ^ McAllister-Grum K (2017). "Pigments and Vaccines: Evaluating the Constitutionality of Targeting Melanin Groups for Mandatory Vaccination". The Journal of Legal Medicine. 37 (1–2): 217–247. doi:10.1080/01947648.2017.1303288. PMID 28910223. S2CID 205505188.
- ^ a b c Hodge JG, Gostin LO (2001). "School vaccination requirements: historical, social, and legal perspectives". Kentucky Law Journal. 90 (4): 831–90. PMID 15868682.
- ^ Tolley, Kim (May 2019). "School Vaccination Wars". History of Education Quarterly. 59 (2): 161–194. doi:10.1017/heq.2019.3. S2CID 151030120.
- ^ a b c Malone, Kevin M; Hinman, Alan R (2003). "The Public Health Imperative and Individual Rights". Law in Public Health Practice: 262–84.
- ^ Horowitz, Julia (30 June 2015). "California governor signs strict school vaccine legislation". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
- ^ Goldstein, N. D.; Purtle, J.; Suder, J.S. (18 November 2019). "Association of Vaccine-Preventable Disease Incidence With Proposed State Vaccine Exemption Legislation". JAMA Pediatrics. 174 (1): 88–89. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.4365. PMC 6865316. PMID 31738369.
- ^ Wang, Eileen; Clymer, Jessica; Davis-Hayes, Cecilia; Buttenheim, Alison (2014). "Nonmedical Exemptions From School Immunization Requirements: A Systematic Review". American Journal of Public Health. 104 (11): 62–84. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302190. PMC 4202987. PMID 25211732.
- ^ "Is it bad policy?". NCSL. 17 January 2019. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
- ^ Cantor, Julie D (2019). "Mandatory Measles Vaccination in New York City – Reflections on a Bold Experiment". New England Journal of Medicine. 381 (2): 101–103. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1905941. PMID 31167046.
- ^ a b Barraza, Leila; et al. (2017). "The Latest in Vaccine Policies: Selected Issues in School Vaccinations, Healthcare Worker Vaccinations, and Pharmacist Vaccination Authority Laws". Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 45 (1_suppl): 16–19. doi:10.1177/1073110517703307. PMC 5503112. PMID 28661302.
- ^ "California's mandatory-vaccination law survives court test". SFChronicle.com. 4 July 2018. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
- ^ "These Are the Colleges Requiring Vaccine Boosters Now". 15 September 2022. Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
- ^ a b "COVID-19 vaccine boosters for young adults: a risk benefit assessment and ethical analysis of mandate policies at universities". 23 September 2022. Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
- ^ a b c Loulergue P (2012). "Survey of Vaccination Policies in French Healthcare Institutions" (PDF). Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses. 42 (4): 161–6. doi:10.1016/j.medmal.2011.11.003. PMID 22516534. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ a b Reiss DR (8 January 2016). "Freedom To Ignore French Vaccination Program – A Court Case". Skeptical Raptor. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.