The National Diet (Japanese: 国会, Hepburn: Kokkai) is the national legislature of Japan. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives (衆議院, Shūgiin), and an upper house, the House of Councillors (参議院, Sangiin). Both houses are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for nominating the Prime Minister. The Diet was first established as the Imperial Diet in 1890 under the Meiji Constitution, and took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution. Both houses meet in the National Diet Building (国会議事堂, Kokkai-gijidō) in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.
Composition
editThe houses of the National Diet are both elected under parallel voting systems. This means that the seats to be filled in any given election are divided into two groups, each elected by a different method; the main difference between the houses is in the sizes of the two groups and how they are elected. Voters are also asked to cast two votes: one for an individual candidate in a constituency, and one for a party list. Any national of Japan at least 18 years of age may vote in these elections, reduced from age 20 in 2016.[1][2] Japan's parallel voting system (mixed-member majoritarian) is not to be confused with the mixed-member proportional systems used in many other nations. The Constitution of Japan does not specify the number of members of each house of the Diet, the voting system, or the necessary qualifications of those who may vote or be returned in parliamentary elections, thus allowing all of these things to be determined by law. However it does guarantee universal adult suffrage and a secret ballot. It also insists that the electoral law must not discriminate in terms of "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income".[3]
Generally, the election of Diet members is controlled by statutes passed by the Diet. This is a source of contention concerning re-apportionment of prefectures' seats in response to changes of population distribution. For example, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) had controlled Japan for most of its post-war history, and it gained much of its support from rural areas. During the post-war era, large numbers of people relocated to urban centers for economic reasons; though some re-apportionments have been made to the number of each prefecture's assigned seats in the Diet, rural areas generally have more representation than do urban areas.[4] Among rural interests, Japanese rice farmers historically had particular influence in internal LDP politics and national policies on trade and agricultural subsidies.[5]
The Supreme Court of Japan began exercising judicial review of apportionment laws following the Kurokawa decision of 1976, invalidating an election in which one district in Hyōgo Prefecture received five times the representation of another district in Osaka Prefecture.[6] In recent elections the malapportionment ratio amounted to 4.8 in the House of Councillors (census 2005: Ōsaka/Tottori;[7] election 2007: Kanagawa/Tottori[8]) and 2.3 in the House of Representatives (election 2009: Chiba 4/Kōchi 3).[9]
Candidates for the lower house must be 25 years old or older and 30 years or older for the upper house. All candidates must be Japanese nationals. Under Article 49 of Japan's Constitution, Diet members are paid about ¥1.3 million a month in salary. Each lawmaker is entitled to employ three secretaries with taxpayer funds, free Shinkansen tickets, and four round-trip airplane tickets a month to enable them to travel back and forth to their home districts.[10]
Powers
editArticle 41 of the Constitution describes the National Diet as "the highest organ of State power" and "the sole law-making organ of the State". This statement is in forceful contrast to the Meiji Constitution, which described the Emperor as the one who exercised legislative power with the consent of the Diet. The Diet's responsibilities include not only the making of laws but also the approval of the annual national budget that the government submits and the ratification of treaties. It can also initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, must be presented to the people in a referendum. The Diet may conduct "investigations in relation to government" (Article 62).
The Prime Minister must be designated by Diet resolution, establishing the principle of legislative supremacy over executive government agencies (Article 67). The government can also be dissolved by the Diet if the House of Representatives passes a motion of no confidence introduced by fifty members of the House of Representatives. Government officials, including the Prime Minister and Cabinet members, are required to appear before Diet investigative committees and answer inquiries. The Diet also has the power to impeach judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct.[3]
In most circumstances, in order to become law a bill must be first passed by both houses of the Diet and then promulgated by the Emperor. This role of the Emperor is similar to the Royal Assent in some other nations; however, the Emperor cannot refuse to promulgate a law and therefore his legislative role is merely a formality.[11]
The House of Representatives is the more powerful chamber of the Diet.[12] While the House of Representatives cannot usually overrule the House of Councillors on a bill, the House of Councillors can only delay the adoption of a budget or a treaty that has been approved by the House of Representatives, and the House of Councillors has almost no power at all to prevent the lower house from selecting any Prime Minister it wishes. Furthermore, once appointed it is the confidence of the House of Representatives alone that the Prime Minister must enjoy in order to continue in office. The House of Representatives can overrule the upper house in the following circumstances:[13]
- If a bill is adopted by the House of Representatives and then either rejected, amended or not approved within 60 days by the House of Councillors, then the bill will become law if again adopted by the House of Representatives by a majority of at least two-thirds of members present.[14]
- If both houses cannot agree on a budget or a treaty, even through the appointment of a joint committee of the Diet, or if the House of Councillors fails to take final action on a proposed budget or treaty within 30 days of its approval by the House of Representatives, then the decision of the lower house is deemed to be that of the Diet.[14]
- If both houses cannot agree on a candidate for Prime Minister, even through a joint committee, or if the House of Councillors fails to designate a candidate within 10 days of House of Representatives' decision, then the nominee of the lower house is deemed to be that of the Diet.
- National Diet Building Interior
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House of Representatives -
House of Councillors -
The waiting room adjacent to the Cabinet Room at the National Diet Building
Activities
editUnder the Constitution, at least one session of the Diet must be convened each year. Technically, only the House of Representatives is dissolved before an election. But, while the lower house is in dissolution, the House of Councillors is usually "closed". The Emperor both convokes the Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives but in doing so must act on the advice of the Cabinet. In an emergency the Cabinet can convoke the Diet for an extraordinary session, and an extraordinary session may be requested by one-quarter of the members of either house.[15] At the beginning of each parliamentary session, the Emperor reads a special speech from his throne in the chamber of the House of Councillors.[16]
The presence of one-third of the membership of either house constitutes a quorum[15] and deliberations are in public unless at least two-thirds of those present agree otherwise. Each house elects its own presiding officer who casts the deciding vote in the event of a tie. The Diet has parliamentary immunity. Members of each house have certain protections against arrest while the Diet is in session and arrested members must be released during the term of the session if the House demands. They are immune outside the house for words spoken and votes cast in the House.[17][18] Each house of the Diet determines its own standing orders and has responsibility for disciplining its own members. A member may be expelled, but only by a two-thirds majority vote. Every member of the Cabinet has the right to appear in either house of the Diet for the purpose of speaking on bills, and each house has the right to compel the appearance of Cabinet members.[19]
Legislative process
editThe vast majority of bills are submitted to the Diet by the Cabinet.[20] Bills are usually drafted by the relevant ministry, sometimes with the advice of an external committee if the issue is sufficiently important or neutrality is necessary.[21] Such advisory committees may include university professors, trade union representatives, industry representatives, and local governors and mayors, and invariably include retired officials.[20] Such draft bills would be sent to the Cabinet Legislation Bureau of the government, as well as to the ruling party.[20]
Building
editHistory
editJapan's first modern legislature was the Imperial Diet (帝国議会, Teikoku-gikai) established by the Meiji Constitution in force from 1889 to 1947. The Meiji Constitution was adopted on February 11, 1889, and the Imperial Diet first met on November 29, 1890, when the document entered into force.[22] The first Imperial Diet of 1890 was plagued by controversy and political tensions. The Prime Minister of Japan at that time was General Count Yamagata Aritomo, who entered into a confrontation with the legislative body over military funding. During this time, there were many critics of the army who derided the Meiji slogan of "rich country, strong military" as in effect producing a poor country (albeit with a strong military). They advocated for infrastructure projects and lower taxes instead and felt their interests were not being served by high levels of military spending. As a result of these early conflicts, public opinion of politicians was not favorable.[23]
The Imperial Diet consisted of a House of Representatives and a House of Peers (貴族院, Kizoku-in). The House of Representatives was directly elected, if on a limited franchise; universal adult male suffrage was introduced in 1925 when the Universal Manhood Suffrage Law was passed, but excluded women, and was limited to men 25 years or older.[24] The House of Peers, much like the British House of Lords, consisted of high-ranking nobles chosen by the Emperor.[25]
The first election by universal suffrage without distinction of sex was held in 1946, but it was not until 1947, when the constitution for post-war Japan came into effect, that universal suffrage was established In Japan.[26]
The word diet derives from Latin and was a common name for an assembly in medieval European polities like the Holy Roman Empire. The Meiji Constitution was largely based on the form of constitutional monarchy found in nineteenth century Prussia that placed the king not as a servant of the state but rather the sole holder of power and sovereignty over his kingdom, which the Japanese view of their emperor and his role at the time favoured.[27] The new Diet was modeled partly on the German Reichstag and partly on the British Westminster system. Unlike the post-war constitution, the Meiji constitution granted a real political role to the Emperor, although in practice the Emperor's powers were largely directed by a group of oligarchs called the genrō or elder statesmen.[28]
To become law or bill, a constitutional amendment had to have the assent of both the Diet and the Emperor. This meant that while the Emperor could no longer legislate by decree he still had a veto over the Diet. The Emperor also had complete freedom in choosing the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, and so, under the Meiji Constitution, Prime Ministers often were not chosen from and did not enjoy the confidence of the Diet.[25] The Imperial Diet was also limited in its control over the budget. However, the Diet could veto the annual budget. If no budget was approved, the budget of the previous year continued in force. This changed with the new constitution after World War II.[29]
The proportional representation system for the House of Councillors, introduced in 1982, was the first major electoral reform under the post-war constitution. Instead of choosing national constituency candidates as individuals, as had previously been the case, voters cast ballots for parties. Individual councillors, listed officially by the parties before the election, are selected on the basis of the parties' proportions of the total national constituency vote.[30] The system was introduced to reduce the excessive money spent by candidates for the national constituencies. Critics charged, however, that this new system benefited the two largest parties, the LDP and the Japan Socialist Party (now Social Democratic Party), which in fact had sponsored the reform.[31]
- National Diet buildings
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The First Japanese Diet Hall (1890–91) -
National Diet Hiroshima Temporary Building (1894) -
The Second Japanese Diet Hall (1891–1925) -
National Diet Building (1930) -
National Diet Building (2017)
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List of sessions
edit
There are three types of sessions of the National Diet:[32]
- R – jōkai (常会), regular, annual sessions of the National Diet, often shortened to "regular National Diet" (通常国会, tsūjō Kokkai). These are nowadays usually called in January, they last for 150 days and can be extended once.
- E – rinjikai (臨時会), extraordinary sessions of the National Diet, often shortened to "extraordinary National Diet" (臨時国会, rinji Kokkai). These are often called in autumn, or in the summer after a regular election of the House of Councillors (参議院議員通常選挙, sangiingiin tsūjōsenkyo) or after a full-term general election of the House of Representatives (衆議院議員総選挙, shūgiingiin sōsenkyo). Its length is negotiated between the two houses, it can be extended twice.
- S – tokubetsukai (特別会), special sessions of the National Diet, often shortened to "special National Diet" (特別国会, tokubetsu Kokkai). They are called only after a dissolution and early general election of the House of Representatives. Because the cabinet must resign after a House of Representatives election, the National Diet always chooses a prime minister-designate in a special session (but inversely, not all PM elections take place in a special Diet). A special session can be extended twice.
- HCES – There is a fourth type of legislative session: If the House of Representatives is dissolved, a National Diet cannot be convened. In urgent cases, the cabinet may invoke an emergency session (緊急集会, kinkyū shūkai) of the House of Councillors to take provisional decisions for the whole Diet. As soon as the whole National Diet convenes again, these decisions must be confirmed by the House of Representatives or become ineffective. Such emergency sessions have been called twice in history, in 1952 and 1953.[33]
Any session of the National Diet may be cut short by a dissolution of the House of Representatives (衆議院解散, shūgiin kaisan). In the table, this is listed simply as "(dissolution)"; the House of Councillors or the National Diet as such cannot be dissolved.
| Diet | Type | Opened | Closed | Length in days (originally scheduled+extension[s]) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | S | May 20, 1947 | December 9, 1947 | 204 (50+154) |
| 2nd | R | December 10, 1947 | July 5, 1948 | 209 (150+59) |
| 3rd | E | October 11, 1948 | November 30, 1948 | 51 (30+21) |
| 4th | R | December 1, 1948 | December 23, 1948 (dissolution) |
23 (150) |
| 5th | S | February 11, 1949 | May 31, 1949 | 110 (70+40) |
| 6th | E | October 25, 1949 | December 3, 1949 | 40 (30+10) |
| 7th | R | December 4, 1949 | May 2, 1950 | 150 |
| 8th | E | July 21, 1950 | July 31, 1950 | 20 |
| 9th | E | November 21, 1950 | December 9, 1950 | 19 (18+1) |
| 10th | R | December 10, 1950 | June 5, 1951 | 178 (150+28) |
| 11th | E | August 16, 1951 | August 18, 1951 | 3 |
| 12th | E | October 10, 1951 | November 30, 1951 | 52 (40+12) |
| 13th | R | December 10, 1951 | July 31, 1952 | 225 (150+85) |
| 14th (ja) | R | August 26, 1952 | August 28, 1952 (dissolution) |
3 (150) |
| – | [HCES] | August 31, 1952 | August 31, 1952 | [1] |
| 15th (ja) | S | October 24, 1952 | March 14, 1953 (dissolution) |
142 (60+99) |
| – | [HCES] | March 18, 1953 | March 20, 1953 | [3] |
| 16th | S | May 18, 1953 | August 10, 1953 | 85 (75+10) |
| 17th | E | October 29, 1953 | November 7, 1953 | 10 (7+3) |
| 18th | E | November 30, 1953 | December 8, 1953 | 9 |
| 19th | R | December 10, 1953 | June 15, 1957 | 188 (150+38) |
| 20th | E | November 30, 1954 | December 9, 1954 | 10 (9+1) |
| 21st | R | December 10, 1954 | January 24, 1955 (dissolution) |
46 (150) |
| 22nd | S | March 18, 1955 | July 30, 1955 | 135 (105+30) |
| 23rd | E | November 22, 1955 | December 16, 1955 | 25 |
| 24th | R | December 20, 1955 | June 3, 1956 | 167 (150+17) |
| 25th | E | November 12, 1956 | December 13, 1956 | 32 (25+7) |
| 26th | R | December 20, 1956 | May 19, 1957 | 151 (150+1) |
| 27th | E | November 1, 1957 | November 14, 1957 | 14 (12+2) |
| 28th | R | December 20, 1957 | April 25, 1958 (dissolution) |
127 (150) |
| 29th | S | June 10, 1958 | July 8, 1958 | 29 (25+4) |
| 30th | E | September 29, 1958 | December 7, 1958 | 70 (40+30) |
| 31st | R | December 10, 1958 | May 2, 1959 | 144 |
| 32nd | E | June 22, 1959 | July 3, 1959 | 12 |
| 33rd | E | October 26, 1959 | December 27, 1959 | 63 (60+13) |
| 34th | R | December 29, 1959 | July 15, 1960 | 200 (150+50) |
| 35th | E | July 18, 1960 | July 22, 1960 | 5 |
| 36th | E | October 17, 1960 | October 24, 1960 (dissolution) |
8 (10) |
| 37th | S | December 5, 1960 | December 22, 1960 | 18 |
| 38th | R | December 26, 1960 | June 8, 1961 | 165 (150+15) |
| 39th | E | September 25, 1961 | October 31, 1961 | 37 |
| 40th | R | December 9, 1961 | May 7, 1962 | 150 |
| 41st | E | August 4, 1962 | September 2, 1962 | 30 |
| 42nd | E | December 8, 1962 | December 23, 1962 | 16 (12+4) |
| 43rd | R | December 24, 1962 | July 6, 1963 | 195 (150+45) |
| 44th | E | October 15, 1963 | October 23, 1963 (dissolution) |
9 (30) |
| 45th | S | December 4, 1963 | December 18, 1963 | 15 |
| 46th | R | December 20, 1963 | June 26, 1964 | 190 (150+40) |
| 47th | E | November 9, 1964 | December 18, 1964 | 40 |
| 48th | R | December 21, 1964 | June 1, 1965 | 163 (150+13) |
| 49th | E | July 22, 1965 | August 11, 1965 | 21 |
| 50th | E | October 5, 1965 | December 13, 1965 | 70 |
| 51st | R | December 20, 1965 | June 27, 1966 | 190 (150+40) |
| 52nd | E | July 11, 1966 | July 30, 1966 | 20 |
| 53rd | E | November 30, 1966 | December 20, 1966 | 21 |
| 54th (ja) | R | December 27, 1966 | December 27, 1966 (dissolution) |
1 (150) |
| 55th | S | February 15, 1967 | July 21, 1967 | 157 (136+21) |
| 56th | E | July 27, 1967 | August 18, 1967 | 23 (15+8) |
| 57th | E | December 4, 1967 | December 23, 1967 | 20 |
| 58th | R | December 27, 1967 | June 3, 1968 | 160 (150+10) |
| 59th | E | August 1, 1968 | August 10, 1968 | 10 |
| 60th | E | December 10, 1968 | December 21, 1968 | 12 |
| 61st | R | December 27, 1968 | August 5, 1969 | 222 (150+72) |
| 62nd | E | November 29, 1969 | December 2, 1969 (dissolution) |
4 (14) |
| 63rd | S | January 14, 1970 | May 13, 1970 | 120 |
| 64th (ja) | E | November 24, 1970 | December 18, 1970 | 25 |
| 65th | R | December 26, 1970 | May 24, 1971 | 150 |
| 66th | E | July 14, 1971 | July 24, 1971 | 11 |
| 67th | E | October 16, 1971 | December 27, 1971 | 73 (70+3) |
| 68th | R | December 29, 1971 | June 16, 1972 | 171 (150+21) |
| 69th | E | July 6, 1972 | July 12, 1972 | 7 |
| 70th | E | October 27, 1972 | November 13, 1972 (dissolution) |
18 (21) |
| 71st (ja) | S | December 22, 1972 | September 27, 1973 | 280 (150+130) |
| 72nd | R | December 1, 1973 | June 3, 1974 | 185 (150+35) |
| 73rd | E | July 24, 1974 | July 31, 1974 | 8 |
| 74th | E | December 9, 1974 | December 25, 1974 | 17 |
| 75th | R | December 27, 1974 | July 4, 1975 | 190 (150+40) |
| 76th | E | September 11, 1975 | December 25, 1975 | 106 (75+31) |
| 77th | R | December 27, 1975 | May 24, 1976 | 150 |
| 78th | E | September 16, 1976 | November 4, 1976 | 50 |
| 79th | E | December 24, 1976 | December 28, 1976 | 5 |
| 80th | R | December 30, 1976 | June 9, 1977 | 162 (150+12) |
| 81st | E | July 27, 1977 | August 3, 1977 | 8 |
| 82nd | E | September 29, 1977 | November 25, 1977 | 58 (40+18) |
| 83rd | E | December 7, 1977 | December 10, 1977 | 4 |
| 84th | R | December 19, 1977 | June 16, 1978 | 180 (150+30) |
| 85th | E | September 18, 1978 | October 21, 1978 | 34 |
| 86th | E | December 6, 1978 | December 12, 1978 | 7 |
| 87th | R | December 22, 1978 | June 14, 1979 | 175 (150+25) |
| 88th | E | August 30, 1979 | September 7, 1979 (dissolution) |
9 (30) |
| 89th | S | October 30, 1979 | November 16, 1979 | 18 |
| 90th | E | November 26, 1979 | December 11, 1979 | 16 |
| 91st | R | December 21, 1979 | May 19, 1980 (dissolution) |
151 (150+9) |
| 92nd | S | July 17, 1980 | July 26, 1980 | 10 |
| 93rd | E | September 29, 1980 | November 29, 1980 | 62 (50+12) |
| 94th | R | December 22, 1980 | June 6, 1981 | 167 (150+17) |
| 95th | E | September 27, 1981 | November 28, 1981 | 66 (55+11) |
| 96th (ja) | R | December 21, 1981 | August 21, 1982 | 244 (150+94) |
| 97th | E | November 26, 1982 | December 25, 1982 | 30 (25+5) |
| 98th | R | December 28, 1982 | May 26, 1983 | 150 |
| 99th | E | July 18, 1983 | July 23, 1983 | 6 |
| 100th | E | September 8, 1983 | November 28, 1983 (dissolution) |
82 (70+12) |
| 101st | S | December 26, 1983 | August 8, 1984 | 227 (150+77) |
| 102nd | R | December 1, 1984 | June 25, 1985 | 207 (150+57) |
| 103rd | E | October 14, 1985 | December 21, 1985 | 69 (62+7) |
| 104th | R | December 24, 1985 | May 22, 1986 | 150 |
| 105th (ja) | E | June 2, 1986 | June 2, 1986 (dissolution) |
1 |
| 106th | S | July 22, 1986 | July 25, 1986 | 4 |
| 107th | E | September 11, 1986 | July 25, 1986 | 4 |
| 108th | R | December 29, 1986 | May 27, 1987 | 150 |
| 109th | E | July 6, 1987 | September 19, 1987 | 76 (65+11) |
| 110th | E | November 6, 1987 | November 11, 1987 | 6 |
| 111th | E | November 27, 1987 | December 12, 1987 | 16 |
| 112th | R | December 28, 1987 | May 25, 1988 | 150 |
| 113th | E | July 19, 1988 | December 28, 1988 | 163 (70+93) |
| 114th | R | December 30, 1988 | June 22, 1989 | 175 (150+25) |
| 115th | E | August 7, 1989 | August 12, 1989 | 6 |
| 116th | E | September 28, 1989 | December 16, 1989 | 80 |
| 117th | R | December 25, 1989 | January 24, 1990 (dissolution) |
31 (150) |
| 118th | S | February 27, 1990 | June 26, 1990 | 120 |
| 119th | E | October 12, 1990 | November 10, 1990 | 30 |
| 120th | R | December 10, 1990 | May 8, 1991 | 150 |
| 121st | E | August 5, 1991 | October 4, 1991 | 61 |
| 122nd | E | November 5, 1991 | December 21, 1991 | 47 (36+11) |
| 123rd | R | January 24, 1992 | June 21, 1992 | 150 |
| 124th | E | August 7, 1992 | August 11, 1992 | 5 |
| 125th | E | October 30, 1992 | December 10, 1992 | 42 (40+2) |
| 126th | R | January 22, 1993 | June 18, 1993 (dissolution) |
148 (150) |
| 127th | S | August 5, 1993 | August 28, 1993 | 24 (10+14) |
| 128th | E | September 17, 1993 | January 29, 1994 | 135 (90+45) |
| 129th | R | January 31, 1994 | June 29, 1994 | 150 |
| 130th | E | July 18, 1994 | July 22, 1994 | 5 |
| 131st | E | September 30, 1994 | December 9, 1994 | 71 (65+6) |
| 132nd | R | January 20, 1995 | June 18, 1995 | 150 |
| 133rd | E | August 4, 1995 | August 8, 1995 | 5 |
| 134th | E | September 29, 1995 | December 15, 1995 | 78 (46+32) |
| 135th | E | January 11, 1996 | January 13, 1996 | 3 |
| 136th (ja) | R | January 22, 1996 | June 19, 1996 | 150 |
| 137th | E | September 27, 1996 | September 27, 1996 (dissolution) |
1 |
| 138th | S | November 7, 1996 | November 12, 1996 | 6 |
| 139th | E | November 29, 1996 | December 18, 1996 | 20 |
| 140th | R | January 20, 1997 | June 18, 1997 | 150 |
| 141st | E | September 29, 1997 | December 12, 1997 | 75 |
| 142nd | R | January 12, 1998 | June 18, 1998 | 158 (150+8) |
| 143rd (ja) | E | July 30, 1998 | October 16, 1998 | 79 (70+9) |
| 144th | E | November 27, 1998 | December 14, 1998 | 18 |
| 145th | R | January 19, 1999 | August 13, 1999 | 207 (150+57) |
| 146th | E | October 29, 1999 | December 15, 1999 | 48 |
| 147th | R | January 20, 2000 | June 2, 2000 (dissolution) |
135 (150) |
| 148th (ja) | S | July 4, 2000 | July 6, 2000 | 3 |
| 149th | E | July 28, 2000 | August 9, 2000 | 13 |
| 150th | E | September 21, 2000 | December 1, 2000 | 72 |
| 151st | R | January 31, 2001 | June 29, 2001 | 150 |
| 152nd | E | August 7, 2001 | August 10, 2001 | 4 |
| 153rd | E | September 27, 2001 | December 7, 2001 | 72 |
| 154th | R | January 21, 2002 | July 31, 2002 | 192 (150+42) |
| 155th | E | October 18, 2002 | December 13, 2002 | 57 |
| 156th | R | January 20, 2003 | July 28, 2003 | 190 (150+40) |
| 157th | E | September 29, 2003 | October 10, 2003 (dissolution) |
15 (36) |
| 158th | S | November 19, 2003 | November 27, 2003 | 9 |
| 159th | R | January 19, 2004 | June 16, 2004 | 150 |
| 160th | E | July 30, 2004 | August 6, 2004 | 8 |
| 161st | E | October 12, 2004 | December 3, 2004 | 53 |
| 162nd | R | January 21, 2005 | August 8, 2005 (dissolution) |
200 (150+55) |
| 163rd (ja) | S | September 21, 2005 | November 1, 2005 | 42 |
| 164th (ja) | R | January 20, 2006 | June 18, 2006 | 150 |
| 165th (ja) | S | September 26, 2006 | December 19, 2006 | 85 (81+4) |
| 166th (ja) | R | January 25, 2007 | July 5, 2007 | 162 (150+12) |
| 167th (ja) | E | August 7, 2007 | August 10, 2007 | 4 |
| 168th (ja) | E | September 10, 2007 | January 15, 2008 | 128 (62+66) |
| 169th (ja) | R | January 18, 2008 | June 21, 2008 | 156 (150+6) |
| 170th (ja) | E | September 24, 2008 | December 25, 2008 | 93 (68+25) |
| 171st (ja) | R | January 5, 2009 | July 21, 2009 (dissolution) |
198 (150+55) |
| 172nd (ja) | S | September 16, 2009 | September 19, 2009 | 4 |
| 173rd (ja) | E | October 26, 2009 | December 4, 2009 | 40 (36+4) |
| 174th (ja) | R | January 18, 2010 | June 16, 2010 | 150 |
| 175th (ja) | E | July 30, 2010 | August 6, 2010 | 8 |
| 176th (ja) | E | October 1, 2010 | December 3, 2010 | 64 |
| 177th (ja) | R | January 24, 2011 | August 31, 2011 | 220 (150+70) |
| 178th (ja) | E | September 13, 2011 | September 30, 2011 | 18 (4+14) |
| 179th (ja) | E | October 20, 2011 | December 9, 2011 | 51 |
| 180th (ja) | R | January 24, 2012 | September 8, 2012 | 229 (150+79) |
| 181st (ja) | E | October 29, 2012 | November 16, 2012 (dissolution) |
19 (33) |
| 182nd (ja) | S | December 26, 2012 | December 28, 2012 | 3 |
| 183rd (ja) | R | January 28, 2013 | June 26, 2013 | 150 |
| 184th (ja) | E | August 2, 2013 | August 7, 2013 | 6 |
| 185th (ja) | E | October 15, 2013 | December 8, 2013 | 55 (53+2) |
| 186th (ja) | R | January 24, 2014 | June 22, 2014 | 150 |
| 187th (ja) | E | September 29, 2014 | November 21, 2014 (dissolution) |
54 (63) |
| 188th (ja) | S | December 24, 2014 | December 26, 2014 | 3 |
| 189th (ja) | R | January 26, 2015 | September 27, 2015 | 245 (150+95) |
| 190th (ja) | R | January 4, 2016 | June 1, 2016 | 150 |
| 191st (ja) | E | August 1, 2016 | August 3, 2016 | 3 |
| 192nd (ja) | E | September 26, 2016 | December 17, 2016 | 83 (66+17) |
| 193rd (ja) | R | January 20, 2017 | June 18, 2017 | 150 |
| 194th (ja) | E | September 28, 2017 | September 28, 2017 (dissolution) |
1 |
| 195th (ja) | S | November 1, 2017 | December 9, 2017 | 39 |
| 196th (ja) | R | January 22, 2018 | July 22, 2018 | 182 (150+32) |
| 197th (ja) | E | October 24, 2018 | December 10, 2018 | 48 |
| 198th (ja) | R | January 28, 2019 | June 26, 2019 | 150 |
| 199th (ja) | E | August 1, 2019 | August 5, 2019 | 5 |
| 200th (ja) | E | October 4, 2019 | December 9, 2019 | 67 |
| 201st (ja) | R | January 20, 2020 | June 17, 2020 | 150 |
| 202nd (ja) | E | September 16, 2020 | September 18, 2020 | 3 |
| 203rd (ja) | E | October 26, 2020 | December 5, 2020 | 41 |
| 204th (ja) | R | January 18, 2021 | June 16, 2021 | 150 |
| 205th (ja) | E | October 4, 2021 | October 14, 2021 (dissolution) |
11 |
| 206th (ja) | S | November 10, 2021 | November 12, 2021 | 3 |
| 207th (ja) | E | December 6, 2021 | December 21, 2021 | 16 |
| 208th (ja) | R | January 17, 2022 | June 15, 2022 | 150 |
| 209th (ja) | E | August 3, 2022 | August 5, 2022 | 3 |
| 210th (ja) | E | October 3, 2022 | December 10, 2022 | 69 |
| 211th (ja) | R | January 23, 2023 | June 21, 2023 | 150 |
List of House of Representatives general elections
edit19th century
edit| Election | Date | Elected prime minister (during term) |
Turnout | Seats | Date of dissolution (D) / expiration of term (E) |
Registered voters |
Majority party | Seats Share | Monarch (Reign) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Imperial Diet (1890–1947); upper house: House of Peers | Emperor Meiji  (1867–1912)
| |||||||||
| 1890 | 1 July 1890 | Yamagata Aritomo | 93.91% | 300 | 450,872 | Constitutional Liberal | 130 | 43.33% | ||
| (Matsukata Masayoshi) | ||||||||||
| 1892 | 15 February 1892 | Matsukata Masayoshi | 91.59% | (D) December 25, 1891 | 434,594 | 94 | 31.33% | |||
| (Itō Hirobumi) | ||||||||||
| Mar. 1894 | March 1, 1894 | Itō Hirobumi | 88.76% | (D) December 30, 1893 | 440,113 | 120 | 40.00% | |||
| Sep. 1894 | 1 September 1894 | Itō Hirobumi | 84.84% | (D) June 2, 1894 | 460,483 | 107 | 35.66% | |||
| (Matsukata Masayoshi) | ||||||||||
| (Itō Hirobumi) | ||||||||||
| Mar. 1898 | 15 March 1898 | Itō Hirobumi | 87.50% | (D) December 25, 1897 | 452,637 | 105 | 35.00% | |||
| (Ōkuma Shigenobu) | ||||||||||
| Aug. 1898 | 10 August 1898 | Ōkuma Shigenobu | 79.91% | (D) June 10, 1898 | 502,292 | Kensei Hontō | 124 | 41.33% | ||
| (Yamagata Aritomo) | ||||||||||
| (Itō Hirobumi) | ||||||||||
| (Katsura Tarō) | ||||||||||
| Election | Date | Elected prime minister (during term) |
Turnout | Seats | Date of dissolution (D) / expiration of term (E) |
Registered voters |
Majority party | Seats Share | Monarch (Reign) | |
20th century
edit| Election | Date | Elected prime minister (during term) |
Turnout | Seats | Date of dissolution (D) / expiration of term (E) |
Registered voters |
Majority party | Seats Share | Monarch (Reign) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1902 | August 10, 1902 | Katsura Tarō | 88.39% | 376 | (E) August 9, 1902 | 982,868 | Rikken Seiyūkai | 191 | 50.79% | Emperor Meiji (1867–1912)
|
| 1903 | March 1, 1903 | 86.17% | (D) December 28, 1902 | 958,322 | 175 | 46.54% | ||||
| 1904 | 1 March 1904 | Katsura Tarō | 86.06% | 379 | (D) December 11, 1903 | 762,445 | 133 | 35.09% | ||
| (Saionji Kinmochi) | ||||||||||
| 1908 | 15 May 1908 | Saionji Kinmochi | 85.29% | (E) March 27, 1908 | 1,590,045 | 187 | 49.34% | |||
| (Katsura Tarō) | ||||||||||
| (Saionji Kinmochi) | ||||||||||
| 1912 | 15 May 1912 | Saionji Kinmochi | 89.58% | 381 | (E) May 14, 1912 | 1,506,143 | 209 | 54.85% | ||
| (Katsura Tarō) | ||||||||||
| (Yamamoto Gonnohyōe) | ||||||||||
| (Ōkuma Shigenobu) | ||||||||||
| 1915 | 25 March 1915 | Ōkuma Shigenobu | 92.13% | (D) December 25, 1914 | 1,546,411 | Rikken Dōshikai | 153 | 40.15% | Emperor Taishō (1912–1926)
| |
| (Terauchi Masatake) | ||||||||||
| 1917 | 20 April 1917 | Terauchi Masatake | 91.92% | (D) January 25, 1917 | 1,422,126 | Rikken Seiyūkai | 165 | 43.30% | ||
| (Hara Takashi) | ||||||||||
| 1920 | 10 May 1920 | Hara Takashi | 86.73% | 464 | (D) February 26, 1920 | 3,069,148 | 278 | 59.91% | ||
| (Takahashi Korekiyo) | ||||||||||
| (Katō Tomosaburō) | ||||||||||
| (Yamamoto Gonnohyōe) | ||||||||||
| (Kiyoura Keigo) | ||||||||||
| 1924 | 10 May 1924 | Katō Takaaki | 91.18% | (D) January 31, 1924 | 3,288,405 | Kenseikai | 151 | 32.54% | ||
| (Wakatsuki Reijirō) | ||||||||||
| (Tanaka Giichi) | ||||||||||
| 1928 | 20 February 1928 | Tanaka Giichi | 80.36% | 466 | (D) January 21, 1928 | 12,408,678 | Rikken Seiyūkai | 218 | 46.78% | Emperor Shōwa (1926–1989)
|
| (Hamaguchi Osachi) | ||||||||||
| 1930 | 20 February 1930 | Hamaguchi Osachi | 83.34% | (D) January 21, 1930 | 12,812,895 | Rikken Minseitō | 273 | 58.58% | ||
| (Wakatsuki Reijirō) | ||||||||||
| (Inukai Tsuyoshi) | ||||||||||
| 1932 | 20 February 1932 | Inukai Tsuyoshi | 81.68% | (D) January 21, 1932 | 13,237,841 | Rikken Seiyukai | 301 | 64.59% | ||
| (Saitō Makoto) | ||||||||||
| (Keisuke Okada) | ||||||||||
| 1936 | 20 February 1936 | Kōki Hirota | 78.65% | (D) January 21, 1936 | 14,479,553 | Rikken Minseitō | 205 | 43.99% | ||
| (Senjūrō Hayashi) | ||||||||||
| 1937 | 30 April 1937 | Senjūrō Hayashi | 73.31% | (D) March 31, 1937 | 14,618,298 | 179 | 38.41% | |||
| (Fumimaro Konoe) | ||||||||||
| (Hiranuma Kiichirō) | ||||||||||
| (Nobuyuki Abe) | ||||||||||
| (Mitsumasa Yonai) | ||||||||||
| (Fumimaro Konoe) | ||||||||||
| (Fumimaro Konoe) | ||||||||||
| (Hideki Tojo) | ||||||||||
| 1942 | 30 April 1942 | Hideki Tojo | 83.16% | (E) April 29, 1942 | 14,594,287 | Imperial Rule Assistance Association | 381 | 81.75% | ||
| (Kuniaki Koiso) | ||||||||||
| (Kantarō Suzuki) | ||||||||||
| (Kantarō Suzuki) | ||||||||||
| (Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni) | ||||||||||
| (Kijūrō Shidehara) | ||||||||||
| 1946 | April 10, 1946 | Shigeru Yoshida | 72.08% | (D) December 18, 1945 | 36,878,420 | Liberal | 141 | 30.25% | ||
| 1947 | 25 April 1947 | Tetsu Katayama | 67.95% | (D) March 31, 1947 | 40,907,493 | Socialist | 143 | 30.68% | ||
| (Hitoshi Ashida) | ||||||||||
| (Shigeru Yoshida) | ||||||||||
| National Diet (1947–present); upper house: House of Councillors | ||||||||||
| 1949 | 23 January 1949 | Shigeru Yoshida | 74.04% | 466 | (D) December 23, 1948 | 42,105,300 | Democratic Liberal | 264 | 56.65% | |
| (Shigeru Yoshida) | ||||||||||
| 1952 | October 1, 1952 | Shigeru Yoshida | 76.43% | (D) August 28, 1952 | 46,772,584 | Liberal | 240 | 51.50% | ||
| 1953 | 19 April 1953 | Shigeru Yoshida | 74.22% | (D) March 14, 1953 | 47,090,167 | Liberal Yoshida faction |
199 | 42.70% | ||
| (Ichirō Hatoyama) | ||||||||||
| 1955 | 27 February 1955 | Ichirō Hatoyama | 75.84% | 467 | (D) January 24, 1955 | 49,235,375 | Democratic | 185 | 39.61% | |
| (Ichirō Hatoyama) | ||||||||||
| (Tanzan Ishibashi) | ||||||||||
| (Nobusuke Kishi) | ||||||||||
| 1958 | 22 May 1958 | Nobusuke Kishi | 76.99% | (D) April 25, 1958 | 52,013,529 | Liberal Democratic | 287 | 61.45% | ||
| (Hayato Ikeda) | ||||||||||
| 1960 | November 20, 1960 | Hayato Ikeda | 73.51% | (D) October 24, 1960 | 54,312,993 | 296 | 63.38% | |||
| 1963 | 21 November 1963 | Hayato Ikeda | 71.14% | (D) October 23, 1963 | 58,281,678 | 283 | 60.59% | |||
| (Eisaku Satō) | ||||||||||
| 1967 | January 29, 1967 | Eisaku Satō | 73.99% | 486 | (D) December 27, 1966 | 62,992,796 | 277 | 56.99% | ||
| 1969 | 27 December 1969 | Eisaku Satō | 68.51% | (D) December 2, 1969 | 69,260,424 | 288 | 59.25% | |||
| (Kakuei Tanaka) | ||||||||||
| 1972 | 10 December 1972 | Kakuei Tanaka | 71.76% | 491 | (D) November 13, 1972 | 73,769,636 | 271 | 55.19% | ||
| (Takeo Miki) | ||||||||||
| 1976 | 5 December 1976 | Takeo Fukuda | 73.45% | 511 | (E) December 9, 1976 | 77,926,588 | 249 | 48.72% | ||
| (Masayoshi Ōhira) | ||||||||||
| 1979 | October 7, 1979 | Masayoshi Ōhira | 68.01% | (D) September 7, 1979 | 80,169,924 | 248 | 48.53% | |||
| 1980 | 22 June 1980 | Zenkō Suzuki | 74.57% | (D) May 19, 1980 | 80,925,034 | 284 | 55.57% | |||
| (Yasuhiro Nakasone) | ||||||||||
| 1983 | December 18, 1983 | Yasuhiro Nakasone | 67.94% | (D) November 28, 1983 | 84,252,608 | Liberal Democratic (LDP-NLC coalition) |
250 | 48.92% | ||
| 1986 | 2 June 1986 | Yasuhiro Nakasone | 71.40% | 512 | (D) June 2, 1986 | 86,426,845 | Liberal Democratic | 300 | 58.59% | |
| (Noboru Takeshita) | ||||||||||
| (Sōsuke Uno) | ||||||||||
| (Toshiki Kaifu) | ||||||||||
| 1990 | 18 February 1990 | Toshiki Kaifu | 73.31% | (D) January 24, 1990 | 90,322,908 | 275 | 53.71% | Emperor Akihito (Heisei) (1989–2019)
| ||
| (Kiichi Miyazawa) | ||||||||||
| 1993 | 18 July 1993 | Morihiro Hosokawa | 67.26% | 511 | (D) June 18, 1993 | 94,477,816 | Liberal Democratic (JNP-JRP–JSP-Komeito–DSP-NPS-SDF coalition: 1993–1994, JRP–Komeito–JNP-DSP-Liberal Reform League coalition: 1994, LDP-JSP-NPS coalition since 1994) |
223 | 43.63% | |
| (Tsutomu Hata) | ||||||||||
| (Tomiichi Murayama) | ||||||||||
| (Ryūtarō Hashimoto) | ||||||||||
| 1996 | 20 October 1996 | Ryūtarō Hashimoto | 59.65% | 500 | (D) September 27, 1996 | 97,680,719 | Liberal Democratic (LDP-JSP/SDP-NPS coalition: 1996, LDP-Liberal coalition: 1999, LDP-Komeito-Liberal/NCP coalition: 1999–2000, LDP-Komeito-NCP coalition: 2000) |
239 | 47.80% | |
| (Keizō Obuchi) | ||||||||||
| (Yoshirō Mori) | ||||||||||
| 2000 | 25 June 2000 | Yoshirō Mori | 62.49% | 480 | (D) June 2, 2000 | 100,492,328 | Liberal Democratic (LDP-Komeito-NCP coalition) |
233 | 48.54% | |
| (Junichiro Koizumi) | ||||||||||
| Election | Date | Elected prime minister (during term) |
Turnout | Seats | Date of dissolution (D) / expiration of term (E) |
Registered voters |
Majority party | Seats Share | Monarch (Reign) | |
21st century
edit| Election | Date | Elected prime minister (during term) |
Turnout | Seats | Date of dissolution (D) / expiration of term (E) |
Registered voters |
Majority party | Seats Share | Monarch (Reign) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2003 | November 9, 2003 | Junichiro Koizumi | 59.86% | 480 | (D) October 10, 2003 | 102,306,684 | Liberal Democratic (LDP-Komeito coalition) |
237 | 49.37% | Emperor Akihito (Heisei) (1989–2019)
|
| 2005 | 11 September 2005 | Junichiro Koizumi | 67.51% | (D) August 8, 2005 | 103,067,966 | 296 | 61.66% | |||
| (Shinzo Abe) | ||||||||||
| (Yasuo Fukuda) | ||||||||||
| (Tarō Asō) | ||||||||||
| 2009 | 30 August 2009 | Yukio Hatoyama | 69.28% | (D) July 21, 2009 | 104,057,361 | Democratic (DPJ-PNP-SDP coalition: 2009–2010, DPJ-PNP coalition: 2010–2012) |
308 | 64.16% | ||
| (Naoto Kan) | ||||||||||
| (Yoshihiko Noda) | ||||||||||
| 2012 | December 16, 2012 | Shinzo Abe | 59.32% | (D) November 16, 2012 | 103,959,866 | Liberal Democratic (LDP-Komeito coalition) |
294 | 61.25% | ||
| 2014 | December 14, 2014 | 52.66% | 475 | (D) November 21, 2014 | 104,067,104 | 291 | 61.26% | |||
| 2017 | 22 October 2017 | Shinzo Abe | 53.68% | 465 | (D) September 28, 2017 | 106,091,229 | 284 | 61.08% | ||
| (Yoshihide Suga) | ||||||||||
| (Fumio Kishida) | ||||||||||
| 2021 | October 31, 2021 | Fumio Kishida | 55.93% | (D) October 14, 2021 | 105,622,758 | 261 | 56.12% | Emperor Naruhito (Reiwa) (2019–present)
| ||
| Election | Date | Elected prime minister (during term) |
Turnout | Seats | Date of dissolution (D) / expiration of term (E) |
Registered voters |
Majority party | Seats Share | Monarch (Reign) | |
List of House of Councillors regular elections
edit20th century
edit- 1947 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1950 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1953 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1956 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1959 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1962 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1965 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1968 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1971 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1974 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1977 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1980 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1983 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1986 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1989 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1992 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1995 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 1998 Japanese House of Councillors election
21st century
edit- 2001 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2004 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2007 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2010 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2013 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2016 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2019 Japanese House of Councillors election
- 2022 Japanese House of Councillors election
See also
edit
Notes
editReferences
edit- ^ "Diet enacts law lowering voting age to 18 from 20". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on October 10, 2016. Retrieved June 17, 2015.
- ^ Japan Guide Coming of Age (seijin no hi) Archived March 2, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved June 8, 2007.
- ^ a b National Diet Library. Constitution of Japan Archived October 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Published 1947. Retrieved July 15, 2007.
- ^ U.S. Library of Congress Country Studies Japan – Electoral System Archived October 12, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 8, 2007.
- ^ Wojtan, Linda S. (November 1993). "Rice: It's More Than Food In Japan". Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education. Retrieved December 4, 2024.
- ^ Goodman, Carl F. (Summer 2001). "The Somewhat Less Reluctant Litigant: Japan's Changing View towards Civil Litigation". Law and Policy in International Business. 32 (4): 785. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
- ^ National Diet Library Issue Brief, March 11, 2008: 参議院の一票の格差・定数是正問題 Retrieved December 17, 2009.
- ^ nikkei.net, September 29, 2009: １票の格差、大法廷30日判決 07年参院選4.86倍 Retrieved December 17, 2009.
- ^ Asahi Shimbun, August 18, 2009: 有権者９８万人増 「一票の格差」２．３倍に拡大 Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved December 17, 2002.
- ^ Fukue, Natsuko, "The basics of being a lawmaker at the Diet Archived September 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine", The Japan Times, January 4, 2011, p. 3.
- ^ House of Councillors. Legislative Procedure. Published 2001. Retrieved July 15, 2007.
- ^ Asia Times Online Japan: A political tsunami approaches. By Hisane Masaki. Published July 6, 2007. Retrieved July 15, 2007.
- ^ "Diet | Japanese government". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on November 19, 2017. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ^ a b House of Representatives of Japan Disagreement between the Two Houses. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
- ^ a b House of Representatives of Japan Sessions of the Diet. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
- ^ House of Representatives of Japan Opening Ceremony and Speeches on Government Policy. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
- ^ "Judgments of the Supreme Court Case 1994 (O) 1287". Supreme Court of Japan. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
- ^ "Judgments of the Supreme Court Case Number 1978 (O) 1240". Supreme Court of Japan. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
- ^ "The Constitution of Japan, CHAPTER IV THE DIET". Japanese Law Translation. Archived from the original on January 5, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2020.
- ^ a b c Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "The Sources of Law". Japanese Law. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.001.1. ISBN 978-0-19-923218-5. Archived from the original on June 3, 2018. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
- ^ M. Nakamura and T. Tsunemoto, 'The Legislative Process: Outline and Actors', in Y.Higuchi (ed.), Five Decades of Constitutionalism in Japanese Society (Tokyo, 2001), pp. 197–219
- ^ Fraser, Andrew; Mason, R. H. P.; Mitchell, Philip (September 16, 2005). Japan's Early Parliaments, 1890–1905: Structure, Issues and Trends. Routledge. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-134-97030-8. Archived from the original on January 22, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2019.
- ^ Stewart Lone Provincial Life and the Imperial Military in Japan Archived January 22, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Page 12. Published 2010. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-87235-5
- ^ Colegrove, Kenneth (1929). "Labor Parties in Japan". American Political Science Review. 23 (2): 329–363. doi:10.2307/1945218. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1945218. S2CID 145649163.
- ^ a b House of Representatives of Japan From Imperial Diet to National Diet. Retrieved July 15, 2007.
- ^ "THE CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN". japan.kantei.go.jp. Retrieved 2019-06-05.
- ^ Hellegers, Dale M. (2001). We, the Japanese People: World War II and the Origins of the Japanese Constitution. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 234. ISBN 0804780323.
- ^ Henkin, Louis and Albert J. Rosenthal Constitutionalism and Rights: the Influence of the United States Constitution Abroad. Page 424. Published 1990. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-06570-1
- ^ "Diet | Japanese government". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on November 19, 2017. Retrieved November 2, 2020.
- ^ Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication. Chapter 27 – Government Employees and Elections Archived March 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Published 2003. Retrieved June 8, 2007.
- ^ Library of Congress County Data. Japan – The Legislature Archived June 24, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 8, 2007.
- ^ House of Councillors: 国会の召集と会期 Archived November 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ House of Councillors: 参議院の緊急集会 Archived December 9, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ House of Representatives: 国会会期一覧 Archived November 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, retrieved October 4, 2019.
External links
edit
- National Diet Library: Diet and Parliaments has the Diet minutes and additional information (in Japanese) (archived 18 October 2002)