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Hebrew alphabet

(Redirected from Square hebrew)
This article is about the alphabet derived from the Aramaic alphabet (CE 135 – present). For the original Hebrew alphabet derived directly from the Phoenician alphabet (10th century BCE – CE 135), see Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. For the descendant script of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, see Samaritan script. For the insect, see Hebrew character.

The Hebrew alphabet (Hebrew: אָלֶף־בֵּית עִבְרִי,[a] Alefbet ivri), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is an abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably Yiddish, Ladino, Judeo-Arabic, and Judeo-Persian. In modern Hebrew, vowels are increasingly introduced. It is also used informally in Israel to write Levantine Arabic, especially among Druze.[2][3][4] It is an offshoot of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire and which itself derives from the Phoenician alphabet.

Hebrew alphabet
Script type
Time period
2nd–1st century BCE to present[1]
DirectionRight-to-left script Edit this on Wikidata
LanguagesHebrew, Yiddish, Ladino, Mozarabic, Levantine Arabic, Aramaic, other Jewish languages
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
Sister systems
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Hebr (125), ​Hebrew
Unicode
Unicode alias
Hebrew
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.
שָׁלוֹם
This article contains Hebrew text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hebrew letters.

Historically, a different abjad script was used to write Hebrew: the original, old Hebrew script, now known as the paleo-Hebrew alphabet, has been largely preserved in a variant form as the Samaritan alphabet, and is still used by the Samaritans. The present "Jewish script" or "square script", on the contrary, is a stylized form of the Aramaic alphabet and was technically known by Jewish sages as Ashurit (lit. "Assyrian script"), since its origins were known to be from Assyria (Mesopotamia).[5]

Various "styles" (in current terms, "fonts") of representation of the Jewish script letters described in this article also exist, including a variety of cursive Hebrew styles. In the remainder of this article, the term "Hebrew alphabet" refers to the square script unless otherwise indicated.

The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters. It does not have case. Five letters have different forms when used at the end of a word. Hebrew is written from right to left. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, but is now considered an "impure abjad". As with other abjads, such as the Arabic alphabet, during its centuries-long use scribes devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as niqqud. In both biblical and rabbinic Hebrew, the letters י ו ה א can also function as matres lectionis, which is when certain consonants are used to indicate vowels. There is a trend in Modern Hebrew towards the use of matres lectionis to indicate vowels that have traditionally gone unwritten, a practice known as "full spelling".

The Yiddish alphabet, a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet used to write Yiddish, is a true alphabet, with all vowels rendered in the spelling, except in the case of inherited Hebrew words, which typically retain their Hebrew consonant-only spellings.

The Arabic and Hebrew alphabets have similarities because they are both derived from the Aramaic alphabet, which in turn derives either from paleo-Hebrew or the Phoenician alphabet, both being slight regional variations of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet used in ancient times to write the various Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Moabite, Phoenician, Punic, et cetera).

History

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Paleo-Hebrew alphabet containing 22 letters, period, geresh, and gershayim
 
The Aleppo Codex, a tenth century Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible. Book of Joshua 1:1
Main article: History of the Hebrew alphabet

The Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before around 1000 BCE.[6] An example of related early Semitic inscriptions from the area include the tenth-century Gezer calendar over which scholars are divided as to whether its language is Hebrew or Phoenician and whether the script is Proto-Canaanite or paleo-Hebrew.[7][8][9][10][11][12]

A Hebrew variant of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, called the paleo-Hebrew alphabet by scholars, began to emerge around 800 BCE.[13] An example is the Siloam inscription (c. 700 BCE).[14]

The paleo-Hebrew alphabet was used in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Following the Babylonian exile of the Kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE, Jews began using a form of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, another offshoot of the same family of scripts, which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire. The Samaritans, who remained in the Land of Israel, continued to use the paleo-Hebrew alphabet. During the 3rd century BCE, Jews began to use a stylized, "square" form of the Aramaic alphabet that was used by the Persian Empire (and which in turn had been adopted from the Assyrians),[15] while the Samaritans continued to use a form of the paleo-Hebrew script called the Samaritan alphabet. After the fall of the Persian Empire in 330 BCE, Jews used both scripts before settling on the square Assyrian form.

The square Hebrew alphabet was later adapted and used for writing languages of the Jewish diaspora – such as Karaim, the Judeo-Arabic languages, Judaeo-Spanish, and Yiddish. The Hebrew alphabet continued in use for scholarly writing in Hebrew and came again into everyday use with the rebirth of the Hebrew language as a spoken language in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially in Israel.

Description

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General

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In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad consisting only of consonants, written from right to left. It has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word.

Vowels

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In the traditional form, vowels are indicated by the weak consonants Aleph (א‎), He (ה‎), Waw/Vav (ו‎), or Yodh (י‎) serving as vowel letters, or matres lectionis: the letter is combined with a previous vowel and becomes silent, or by imitation of such cases in the spelling of other forms. Also, a system of vowel points to indicate vowels (diacritics), called niqqud, was developed. In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish and to some extent Modern Hebrew, vowels may be indicated. Today, the trend is toward full spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels.

When used to write Yiddish, vowels are indicated, using certain letters, either with niqqud diacritics (e.g. אָ‎ or יִ‎) or without (e.g. ע‎ or י‎), except for Hebrew words, which in Yiddish are written in their Hebrew spelling.

To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization and diacritical symbols called nequdot (נקודות‎‎, literally "points"). One of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study, in poetry or when teaching the language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set of cantillation marks, called trope or te'amim, used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls). In everyday writing of modern Hebrew, niqqud are absent; however, patterns of how words are derived from Hebrew roots (called shorashim or "triliterals") allow Hebrew speakers to determine the vowel-structure of a given word from its consonants based on the word's context and part of speech.

Alphabet

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Unlike the Paleo-Hebrew writing script, the modern Hebrew script has five letters that have special final forms,[c] called sofit (Hebrew: סופית, meaning in this context "final" or "ending") form, used only at the end of a word, somewhat as in the Greek or in the Arabic and Mandaic alphabets.[b] These are shown below the normal form in the following table (letter names are Unicode standard[16][17]). Although Hebrew is read and written from right to left, the following table shows the letters in order from left to right:

Alef Gimel Dalet Zayin Chet Tet Yod Kaf
א‎ ב‎ ג‎ ד‎ ה‎ ו‎ ז‎ ח‎ ט‎ י‎ כ‎
ך‎
Lamed Mem Samech Ayin Tsadi Qof Resh Tav
ל‎ מ‎ נ‎ ס‎ ע‎ פ‎ צ‎ ק‎ ר‎ ש‎ ת‎
ם‎ ן‎ ף‎ ץ‎

Order

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As far back as the 13th century BCE, ancient Hebrew abecedaries indicate a slightly different ordering of the alphabet. The Zayit Stone,[18] Izbet Sartah ostracon,[19] and one inscription from Kuntillet Ajrud[20] each contain a number of reverse letter orders; such as vav-he, chet-zayin, pe-ayin, etc.

A reversal to pe-ayin can be clearly seen in the Book of Lamentations, whose first four chapters are ordered as alphabetical acrostics. In the Masoretic text, the first chapter has the now-usual ayin-pe ordering, and the second, third and fourth chapters exhibit pe-ayin.[21] In the Dead Sea Scrolls version (4QLam/4Q111), reversed ordering also appears in the first chapter (i.e. in all the first four chapters).[22] The fact that these chapters follows the pre-exilic pe-ayin order is evidence for them being written shortly after the events described, rather than being later, post-exilic compositions.[23][24][25]

Pronunciation

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Alphabet

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Main articles: Biblical Hebrew phonology, Modern Hebrew phonology, International Phonetic Alphabet for Hebrew, and Yiddish phonology

The descriptions that follow are based on the pronunciation of modern standard Israeli Hebrew.

letter IPA Name of letter Pronunciation
Unicode[16][17] Hebrew[26] Modern Hebrew
pronunciation 		Yiddish / Ashkenazi
pronunciation 		Sephardi
pronunciation 		Yemenite

pronunciation

Approximate western European equivalent[27]
א‎ [∅], [ʔ] Alef אָלֶף‎ /alɛf/ /ʔaləf/ /ʔalɛf/ /ˈɔlæf/ When ʔ, as in button [ˈbʌʔn̩] or clipboard [ˌklɪʔ⁠ˈbɔɹd]
בּ‎ [b] Bet בֵּית‎ /bet/ /bɛɪs/, /bɛɪz/ /bɛt/ /be̞θ/ b as in black
ב‎ [v] בֵית‎ /vet/ /vɛɪs/, /vɛɪz/ /vɛt/ /ve̞θ/ v as in vogue
גּ‎ [ɡ] Gimel גִּימֵל‎ /ˈɡimel/ /ˈɡɪməl/ /ˈɡimɛl/ /ˈdʒime̞l/ g as in gourd
ג‎ [ɣ] גִימֵל‎ /ˈɣɪmεl/ /ˈɣime̞l/ gh as in Arabic ghoul
דּ‎ [d] Dalet דָּלֶת‎ /ˈdalɛt/, /ˈdalɛd/ /ˈdaləd/, /ˈdaləs/ /ˈdalɛt/ /ˈdɔle̞θ/ d as in doll
ד‎ [ð] דָלֶת‎ /ˈðalεt/ /ˈðɔle̞θ/ th as in that
ה‎ [h] He הֵא‎ /he/, /hej/ /hɛɪ/ /he/ /he̞/ h as in hold
ו‎ [v] Vav וָו‎ /vav/ /vɔv/ /vav/ /wɔw/ v as in vogue
ז‎ [z] Zayin זַיִן‎ /ˈzajin/, /ˈza.in/ /ˈzajɪn/ /ˈzajin/ /ˈzajin/ z as in zoo
ח‎ [χ] Chet חֵית‎ /χet/ /χɛs/ /ħɛt/ /ħe̞θ/ ch as in Bach
ט‎ [t] Tet טֵית‎ /tet/ /tɛs/ /tɛt/ /tˤe̞θ/ t as in tool
י‎ [j] Yod יוֹד‎ /jod/, /jud/ /jʊd/ /jud/ /jœð/ y as in yolk
כּ‎ [k] Kaf כַּף‎ /kaf/ /kɔf/ /kaf/ /kaf/ k as in king
כ‎ [χ] כַף‎ /χaf/ /χɔf/ /χaf/ /xaf/ ch as in bach
ךּ‎ [k] כַּף סוֹפִית‎ /kaf sofit/ /ˈlaŋɡə kɔf/ /kaf sofit/ /kaf sœˈfiθ/ k as in king
ך‎ [x]~[χ] כַף סוֹפִית‎ /χaf sofit/ /ˈlaŋɡə χɔf/ /χaf sofit/ /xaf sœˈfiθ/ ch as in bach
ל‎ [l] Lamed לָמֶד‎ /ˈlamɛd/ /ˈlaməd/ /ˈlamɛd/ /ˈlɔme̞ð/ l as in luck
מ‎ [m] Mem מֵם‎ /mem/ /mɛm/ /mɛm/ /me̞m/ m as in mother
ם‎ מֵם סוֹפִית‎ /mem sofit/ /ˈʃlɔs mɛm/ /mɛm sofit/ /me̞m sœˈfiθ/
נ‎ [n] Nun נוּן‎ /nun/ /nʊn/ /nun/ /nun/ n as in night
ן‎ נוּן סוֹפִית‎ /nun sofit/ /ˈlaŋɡə nʊn/ /nun sofit/ /nun sœˈfiθ/
ס‎ [s] Samekh ְסָמֶךְ‎ /ˈsamɛχ/ /ˈsaməχ/ /ˈsamɛχ/ /ˈsɔme̞x/ s as in sight
ע‎ [ʔ]~[ʕ], [∅] Ayin עַיִן‎ /ajin/, /ʔa.in/ /ajɪn/ /ajin/ /ˈʕajin/ When ʔ, as in button [ˈbʌʔn̩] or clipboard [ˌklɪʔ⁠ˈbɔɹd]. When ʕ, no English equivalent.
פּ‎ [p] Pe פֵּא‎ /pe/, /pej/ /pɛɪ/ /pe/ /pe̞/ p as in pool
פ‎ [f] פֵא‎ /fe/, /fej/ /fɛɪ/ /fe/ /fe̞/ f as in full
ףּ‎ [p] פֵּא סוֹפִית‎ /pe sofit/, /pej sofit/ /ˈlaŋɡə pɛɪ/ /pe sofit/ /pe̞ sœˈfiθ/ p as in pool
ף‎ [f] פֵא סוֹפִית‎ /fe sofit/, /fej sofit/ /ˈlaŋɡə fɛɪ/ /fe sofit/ /fe̞ sœˈfiθ/ f as in full
צ‎ [ts] Tsadi צָדִי‎ /ˈtsadi/ /ˈtsadi/, /ˈtsadɪk/ /ˈtsadik/ /ˈsˤɔði/ ts as in cats
ץ‎ צָדִי סוֹפִית‎ /ˈtsadi sofit/ /ˈlaŋɡə ˈtsadɪk/, /ˈlaŋɡə ˈtsadək/ /ˈtsadik sofit/ /ˈsˤɔði sœˈfiθ/
ק‎ [k] Qof קוֹף‎ /kuf/, /kof/ /kʊf/ /kuf/ /gœf/ k as in king
ר‎ [ʁ] Resh רֵישׁ‎ /ʁeʃ/ /ʁɛɪʃ/ /reʃ/ /re̞ʃ/ r as in French "r"
שׁ‎ [ʃ] Shin שִׁין‎ /ʃin/ /ʃɪn/ /ʃin/ /ʃin/ sh as in shop
שׂ‎ [s] שִׂין‎ /sin/ /sɪn/ /sin/ /sin/ s as in sight
תּ‎ [t] Tav תָּו‎ /tav/, /taf/ /tɔv/, /tɔf/ /tav/ /tɔw/ t as in tool
ת‎ [θ] תָו‎ /sɔv/, /sɔf/ /θav/ /θɔw/ th as in thin

By analogy with the other dotted/dotless pairs, dotless tav, ת‎, would be expected to be pronounced /θ/ (voiceless dental fricative), and dotless dalet ד‎ as /ð/ (voiced dental fricative), but these were lost among most Jews due to these sounds not existing in the countries where they lived (such as in nearly all of Eastern Europe). Yiddish modified /θ/ to /s/ (cf. seseo in Spanish), but in modern Israeli Hebrew, it is simply pronounced /t/. Likewise, historical /ð/ is simply pronounced /d/.

Shin and sin

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Further information: Shin (letter)

Shin and sin are represented by the same letter, ש‎, but are two separate phonemes. When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a shin-dot or sin-dot; the shin-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and the sin-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter.

Symbol Name Transliteration IPA Example
שׁ‎ (right dot) shin sh /ʃ/ shower
שׂ‎ (left dot) sin s /s/ sour

Historically, left-dot-sin corresponds to Proto-Semitic *ś, which in biblical-Judaic-Hebrew corresponded to the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative /ɬ/ (or /ś/).[28]

Dagesh

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Main article: Dagesh
See also: Begadkefat

Historically, the consonants ב‎ bet, ג‎ gimmel, ד‎ daleth, כ‎ kaf, פ‎ pe and ת‎ tav each had two sounds: one hard (plosive), and one soft (fricative), depending on the position of the letter and other factors. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called dagesh (דגש‎), while the soft sounds lack a dagesh. In modern Hebrew, however, the dagesh only changes the pronunciation of ב‎ bet, כ‎ kaf, and פ‎ pe, and does not affect the name of the letter. The differences are as follows:

Name With dagesh Without dagesh
Symbol Transliteration IPA Example Symbol Transliteration IPA Example
bet/vet בּ‎ b /b/ bun ב‎ v, ḇ /v/ van
kaf [29]כּ ךּ‎ k /k/ kangaroo כ ך‎ kh, ch, ḵ, x /χ/ loch
pe פּ ףּ‎ p /p/ pass פ ף‎ f, p̄, ph /f/ find

In other dialects (mainly liturgical) there are variations from this pattern.

  • In some Sephardi and Mizrahi dialects, bet without dagesh is pronounced [b], like bet with dagesh
  • In Syrian and Yemenite Hebrew, gimel without dagesh is pronounced [ɣ].
  • In Yemenite Hebrew, and in the Iraqi pronunciation of the word "Adonai", dalet without dagesh is pronounced [ð] as in "these"
  • In Ashkenazi Hebrew, as well as Krymchaki Hebrew, tav without dagesh is pronounced [s] as in "silk"
  • In Iraqi and Yemenite Hebrew, and formerly in some other dialects, tav without dagesh is pronounced [θ] as in "thick"

Sounds represented with diacritic geresh

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Main articles: Geresh and Hebraization of English

The sounds [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ], [ʒ], written ⟨צ׳‎⟩, ⟨ג׳‎⟩, ⟨ז׳‎⟩, and [w], non-standardly sometimes transliterated ⟨וו‎⟩, are often found in slang and loanwords that are part of the everyday Hebrew colloquial vocabulary. The symbol resembling an apostrophe after the Hebrew letter modifies the pronunciation of the letter and is called a geresh.

Hebrew slang and loanwords
Name Symbol IPA Transliteration Example
Gimel with a geresh ג׳‎ [d͡ʒ] ǧ[30] ǧáḥnun [ˈd͡ʒaχnun] גַּ׳חְנוּן‎
Zayin with a geresh ז׳‎ [ʒ] ž[30] koláž [koˈlaʒ] קוֹלַאז׳‎
Tsadi with a geresh צ׳‎ [t͡ʃ] č[30] čupár (treat) [t͡ʃuˈpar] צ׳וּפָּר‎
Vav with a geresh
or double Vav 		וו‎ or ו׳‎ (non standard)[] [w] w awánta (boastful act) [aˈwanta] אַוַונְטַה‎

The pronunciation of the following letters can also be modified with the geresh diacritic. The represented sounds are however foreign to Hebrew phonology, i.e., these symbols mainly represent sounds in foreign words or names when transliterated with the Hebrew alphabet, and not loanwords.

Transliteration of non-native sounds
Name Symbol IPA Arabic letter Example Comment
Dalet with a geresh ד׳‎ [ð] Dhāl (ذ‎)
Voiced th 		Dhū al-Ḥijjah (ذو الحجة)‎ ד׳ו אל־חיג׳ה
  • Also used for English voiced "th"
  • Often a simple ד‎ is written.
Tav with a geresh ת׳‎ [θ] Thāʼ (ﺙ‎)
Voiceless th 		Thurston ת׳רסטון
Chet with a geresh ח׳‎ [χ] Khāʼ (خ‎) Sheikh (شيخ)‎ שייח׳ Unlike the other sounds in this table, the sound [χ] represented by ח׳‎ is indeed a native sound in Hebrew; the geresh is however used only when transliteration must distinguish between [χ] and [ħ], in which case ח׳‎ transliterates the former and ח the latter, whereas in everyday usage ח without geresh is pronounced [ħ] only dialectically but [χ] commonly.
Ayin with a geresh
or
Resh with a geresh 		ע׳‎
or
ר׳‎ 		[ʁ] Ghayn (غ‎) Ghajar (غجر);
Ghalib (غالب) 		ע׳ג׳ר
ר׳אלב 		The guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language prefer Resh with a geresh (ר׳‎); however, this guideline is not universally followed

Geresh is also used to denote an abbreviation consisting of a single Hebrew letter, while gershayim (a doubled geresh) are used to denote acronyms pronounced as a string of letters; geresh and gershayim are also used to denote Hebrew numerals consisting of a single Hebrew letter or of multiple Hebrew letters, respectively. Geresh is also the name of a cantillation mark used for Torah recitation, though its visual appearance and function are different in that context.

Identical pronunciation

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In much of Israel's general population, especially where Ashkenazic pronunciation is prevalent, many letters have the same pronunciation. They are as follows:

Letters Transliteration Pronunciation (IPA)
א‎
Alef* 		ע‎
Ayin* 		not
transliterated 		Usually when in medial word position:
/./
(separation of vowels in a hiatus)
In initial, final, or sometimes medial word position:
silent
alternatingly
ʼ /ʔ/
(glottal plosive)
ב‎
Bet (without dagesh) Vet 		ו‎
Vav 		v /v/
ח‎
Chet* 		כ‎
Kaf (without dagesh)
Khaf* 		kh/ch/h /χ/
ט‎
Tet 		תּ‎
Tav 		t /t/
כּ‎
Kaf (with dagesh) 		ק‎
Qof 		k /k/
ס‎
Samekh 		שׂ‎
Sin (with left dot) 		s /s/
צ‎
Tsadi* 		תס‎
Tav-Samekh* 		and תשׂ‎
Tav-Sin* 		ts/tz /ts/
צ׳‎
Tsadi (with geresh) 		טשׁ‎
Tet-Shin* 		and תשׁ‎
Tav-Shin* 		ch/tsh (chair) /tʃ/

* Varyingly

Ancient Hebrew pronunciation

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Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of Ancient Hebrew. The six consonants /b ɡ d k p t/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also called BeGeD KeFeT letters /ˌbeɪɡɛdˈkɛfɛt/. The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points. They were pronounced as plosives [b ɡ d k p t] at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced as fricatives [v ɣ ð x f θ] when preceded by a vowel (commonly indicated with a macron, ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ). The plosive and double pronunciations were indicated by the dagesh. In Modern Hebrew the sounds ḏ and ḡ have reverted to [d] and [ɡ], respectively, and ṯ has become [t], so only the remaining three consonants /b k p/ show variation. ר‎ resh may have also been a "doubled" letter, making the list BeGeD KePoReT. (Sefer Yetzirah, 4:1)

Regional and historical variation

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The following table contains the pronunciation of the Hebrew letters in reconstructed historical forms and dialects using the International Phonetic Alphabet. The apostrophe-looking symbol after some letters is not a yud but a geresh. It is used for loanwords with non-native Hebrew sounds. The dot in the middle of some of the letters, called a "dagesh kal", also modifies the sounds of the letters ב‎, כ‎ and פ‎ in modern Hebrew (in some forms of Hebrew it modifies also the sounds of the letters ג‎, ד‎ and/or ת‎; the "dagesh chazak" – orthographically indistinguishable from the "dagesh kal" – designates gemination, which today is realized only rarely – e.g. in biblical recitations or when using Arabic loanwords).

Symbol Pronunciation
Israeli Ashkenazi Sephardi Yemenite Reconstructed Arabic equivalent
Tiberian Mishnaic Biblical
א‎ [ʔ, -] [ – ] [ʔ, -] [ʔ, -] [ʔ, -] [ʔ, -] [ʔ] ا‎ / ء‎
בּ‎ [b] [b] [b] [b] [b] [b] [b] ب‎
ב‎ [v] [v~v̥] [b~β~v] [β] [v] [β] [β] ﭪ‎
גּ‎ [ɡ] [ɡ~ɡ̊] [ɡ] [dʒ] [ɡ] [ɡ] [ɡ] ج‎
ג‎ [ɡ~ɣ] [ɣ] [ɣ] [ɣ] [ɣ] غ‎
דּ‎ [d] [d~d̥] [d̪] [d̪] [d̪] [d̪] [d̪] د‎
ד‎ [d̪~ð] [ð] [ð] [ð] [ð] ذ‎
ה‎ [h~ʔ, -] [h, -] [h, -] [h, -] [h, -] [h, -] [h] ه‎
ו‎ [v] [v~v̥] [v] [w] [w] [w] [w] و‎
וּ‎ [uː] [uː] [uː] [əw] ? ? ? ـُو‎
וֹ‎ [o̞ː] [əʊ, ɐʊ] [oː] [œː] ? ? ? ـو‎
ז‎ [z] [z~z̥] [z] [z] [z] [z] [z] ز‎
ח‎ [x~χ] [x] [ħ] [ħ] [ħ] [ħ] [ħ, χ] ح‎
ט‎ [t] [t] [t̪] [t̴̪] (1) [t̴̪] [t̪ˤ] (2) [t̪ʼ] (3) ط‎
י‎ [j] [j] [j] [j] [j] [j] [j] ي‎
ִי‎ [iː] [iː] [iː] [iː] ? ? ? ـِي‎
כּ ךּ‎ [k] [k] [k] [k] [k] [k] [kʰ] ك‎
כ ך‎ [x~χ] [x] [x] [x] [x] [x] [x] خ‎
ל‎ [l] [l~ɫ] [l] [l] [l] [l] [l] ل‎
מ ם‎ [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] م‎
נ ן‎ [n] [n] [n̪] [n̪] [n̪] [n̪] [n̪] ن‎
ס‎ [s] [s] [s] [s] [s] [s] [s] ص‎⟨ṣ⟩ [sˤ] /

س‎

ע‎ [ʕ, - ] [ – ] [ʕ, ŋ, - ] [ʕ] [ʕ] [ʕ] [ʕ, ʁ] ع‎
פּ ףּ‎ [p] [p] [p] [p] [p] [p] [p] پ‎
פ ף‎ [f] [f] [f] [f] [f] [ɸ] [ɸ] ف‎
צ ץ‎ [t͡s] [t͡s] [t͡s] [s̴] (1) [s̴] [sˤ] (2) [sˤ] ض‎⟨ḍ⟩[d̪ˤ][a]
ק‎ [k] [k] [k] [ɡ], [ɢ], [q] [q] [q] [q] ق‎
ר‎ [ɣ~ʁ] [ɹ]~[ʀ] [r]~[ɾ] [r]~[ɾ] [ʀ] [r] [ɾ] ر‎
שׁ‎ [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ] [ʃ] ش‎
שׂ‎ [s] [s] [s] [s] [s] [s] [ɬ] س‎
תּ‎ [t] [t] [t] [t̪] [t̪] [t̪] [t̪] ت‎
ת‎ [s] [θ] [θ] [θ] [θ] ث‎
  1. velarized or pharyngealized
  2. pharyngealized
  3. sometimes said to be ejective but more likely glottalized.

Vowels

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Matres lectionis

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Main article: Mater lectionis

א‎ alef, ע‎ ayin, ו‎ waw/vav and י‎ yod are letters that can sometimes indicate a vowel instead of a consonant (which would be, respectively, /ʔ/, /ʕ/, /v/ and /j/). When they do, ו‎ and י‎ are considered to constitute part of the vowel designation in combination with a niqqud symbol – a vowel diacritic (whether or not the diacritic is marked), whereas א‎ and ע‎ are considered to be mute, their role being purely indicative of the non-marked vowel.

Letter Name
of letter		 Consonant
indicated
when letter
consonantal		 Vowel
designation		 Name of
vowel designation		 Indicated
Vowel
א‎ alef /ʔ/ — — ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô
ע‎ ayin /ʔ/ or /ʕ/ — — ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô
ו‎ waw/vav /w/ or /v/ וֹ‎ ḥolám malé ô
וּ‎ shurúq û
י‎ yud /j/ ִ י‎ ḥiríq malé î
ֵ י‎ tseré malé ê, ệ

Vowel points

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Niqqud is the system of dots that help determine vowels and consonants. In Hebrew, all forms of niqqud are often omitted in writing, except for children's books, prayer books, poetry, foreign words, and words which would be ambiguous to pronounce. Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes, /i e a o u/, but many more written symbols for them:

Name Symbol Written Position Israeli Hebrew
IPA Transliteration English
example
Hiriq   vowel written below consonant [i] i meet
Tsere   vowel written below consonant [e̞], ([e̞j] with
succeeding yod) 		eh (precise pronunciation); ei (imprecise due to modern pronunciation, even if with succeeding yod – see Note 2) bed, penguin
Segol   vowel written below consonant [e̞] e men
Patach   vowel written below consonant [ä] a father
Kamatz   vowel written below consonant [ä], (or [o̞]) ah, (or oh) father, loɡin
Holam Haser   vowel written above consonant [o̞] o home
Holam Male וֹ‎ isolated vowel written on its own
Shuruk וּ‎ isolated vowel written on its own [u] u food
Kubutz   vowel written below consonant

Note 1: The circle represents whatever Hebrew letter is used.
Note 2: The pronunciation of tsere and sometimes segol – with or without the letter yod – is sometimes ei in Modern Hebrew. This is not correct in the normative pronunciation and not consistent in the spoken language.[31]
Note 3: The dagesh, mappiq, and shuruk have different functions, even though they look the same.
Note 4: The letter ו‎ (waw/vav) is used since it can only be represented by that letter.

Meteg
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Main article: Meteg

By adding a vertical line (called Meteg) underneath the letter and to the left of the vowel point, the vowel is made long. The meteg is only used in Biblical Hebrew, not Modern Hebrew.

Sh'va
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Main article: Sh'va

By adding two vertical dots (called Sh'va) underneath the letter, the vowel is made very short. When sh'va is placed on the first letter of the word, mostly it is "è" (but in some instances, it makes the first letter silent without a vowel (vowel-less): e.g. וְ wè to "w")

Name Symbol Israeli Hebrew
IPA Transliteration English
example
Shva   [e̞] or ∅ apostrophe, e,
or silent 		met or silent
Reduced Segol   [e̞] e met
Reduced Patach   [ä] a cat
Reduced Kamatz   [o̞] o on
Comparison table
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Vowel comparison table [32]
Vowel length
(phonetically not manifested in Israeli Hebrew) 		IPA Transliteration English
example
Long Short Very Short
ָ ‎ ַ ‎ ֲ ‎ [ä] a fall
ֵ ‎ ֶ ‎ ֱ ‎ [e̞] e men
וֹ ‎ ֹ ‎ ֳ ‎ [o̞] o joke
וּ‎ ֻ ‎ [u] u duty
ִ י ‎  ִ ‎ [i] i media
Note I: By adding two vertical dots (sh'va) ְ ‎
the vowel is made very short.
Note II: The short o and long a have the same niqqud.
Note III: The short o is usually promoted to a long o
in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation
Note IV: The short u is usually promoted to a long u
in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation

Gershayim

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Main article: Gershayim

The symbol ״‎ is called a gershayim and is a punctuation mark used in the Hebrew language to denote acronyms. It is written before the last letter in the acronym, e.g. ר״ת‎. Gershayim is also the name of a cantillation mark in the reading of the Torah, printed above the accented letter, e.g. א֞‎.

Stylistic variants

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Further information: Cursive Hebrew, Rashi script, Ashuri alphabet, and History of the Hebrew alphabet

The following table displays typographic and chirographic variants of each letter. For the five letters that have a different final form used at the end of words, the final forms are displayed beneath the regular form.

The block (square, or "print" type) and cursive ("handwritten" type) are the only variants in widespread contemporary use. Rashi is also used, for historical reasons, in a handful of standard texts.

Letter
name
(Unicode) 		Variants
Contemporary Early modern Ancestral
Block serif Block sans-serif Cursive Rashi Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Aramaic
Alef א א     𐤀    
Bet ב ב     𐤁    
Gimel ג ג     𐤂    
Dalet ד ד     𐤃    
He ה ה     𐤄    
Vav (Unicode)[16] / Waw ו ו     𐤅    
Zayin ז ז     𐤆    
Chet ח ח     𐤇    
Tet ט ט     𐤈    
Yod י י     𐤉    
Kaf כ כ     𐤊    
Final Kaf ך ך    
Lamed ל ל     𐤋    
Mem מ מ     𐤌    
Final Mem ם ם    
Nun נ נ     𐤍    
Final Nun ן ן    
Samekh ס ס     𐤎    
Ayin ע ע     𐤏    
Pe פ פ     𐤐    
Final Pe ף ף    
Tsadi צ צ     𐤑    ,  
Final Tsadi ץ ץ    
Qof ק ק     𐤒    
Resh ר ר     𐤓    
Shin ש ש     𐤔    
Tav ת ת     𐤕    

Yiddish symbols

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Symbol Explanation
װ ױ ײ ײַ ‎ These are intended for Yiddish. They are not used in Hebrew, aside from in loan words[d]. They are possible to visually recreate using a sequence of letters, וו וי יי‎, except when a diacritic is inserted underneath that would not appear in the middle.
בֿ‎ The rafe (רפה) diacritic is no longer regularly used in Hebrew. In Masoretic Texts and some other older texts, lenited consonants and sometimes matres lectionis are indicated by a small line on top of the letter. Its use has been largely discontinued in modern printed texts. It is still used to mark fricative consonants in the YIVO orthography of Yiddish.

Numeric values of letters

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Main article: Hebrew numerals

Following the adoption of Greek Hellenistic alphabetic numeration practice, Hebrew letters started being used to denote numbers in the late 2nd century BC,[33] and performed this arithmetic function for about a thousand years. Nowadays alphanumeric notation is used only in specific contexts, e.g. denoting dates in the Hebrew calendar, denoting grades of school in Israel, other listings (e.g. שלב א׳, שלב ב׳ – "phase a, phase b"), commonly in Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) in a practice known as gematria, and often in religious contexts.

 
The lower clock on the Jewish Town Hall building in Prague, with Hebrew numerals in counterclockwise order.
letter numeric value letter numeric value letter numeric value
א‎ 1 י‎ 10 ק‎ 100
ב‎ 2 כ‎ 20 ר‎ 200
ג‎ 3 ל‎ 30 ש‎ 300
ד‎ 4 מ‎ 40 ת‎ 400
ה‎ 5 נ‎ 50
ו‎ 6 ס‎ 60
ז‎ 7 ע‎ 70
ח‎ 8 פ‎ 80
ט‎ 9 צ‎ 90

The numbers 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 are commonly represented by the juxtapositions ת״ק‎, ת״ר‎, ת״ש‎, ת״ת‎, and תת״ק‎ respectively. Adding a geresh ("׳‎") to a letter multiplies its value by one thousand, for example, the year 5778 is portrayed as ה׳תשע״ח‎, where ה׳‎ represents 5000, and תשע״ח‎ represents 778.

Transliterations and transcriptions

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Main articles: Romanization of Hebrew, Biblical Hebrew, Biblical Hebrew orthography, Yiddish, and Yiddish orthography

The following table lists transliterations and transcriptions of Hebrew letters used in Modern Hebrew.

Clarifications:

  • For some letters, the Academy of the Hebrew Language offers a precise transliteration that differs from the regular standard it has set. When omitted, no such precise alternative exists and the regular standard applies.
  • The IPA phonemic transcription is specified whenever it uses a different symbol from the one used for the regular standard Israeli transliteration.
  • The IPA phonetic transcription is specified whenever it differs from IPA phonemic transcription.

Note: SBL's transliteration system, recommended in its Handbook of Style,[34] differs slightly from the 2006 precise transliteration system of the Academy of the Hebrew Language; for "צ‎" SBL uses "ṣ" (≠ AHL "ẓ"), and for בג״ד כפ״ת with no dagesh, SBL uses the same symbols as for with dagesh (i.e. "b", "g", "d", "k", "f", "t").

Hebrew letter Standard
Israeli
transliteration
– regular[35] 		standard
Israeli
transliteration
– precise[35] 		IPA phonemic
transcription 		IPA phonetic
transcription
א‎
consonantal, in
initial word
positions
 none[A1] [ʔ]
א‎
consonantal, in
non-initial word
positions
 ' ʾ /ʔ/
א‎
silent
 none[A2]
בּ‎ b
ב‎ v
גּ‎ g g
ג‎ ḡ
ג׳‎ ǧ[B1][30] /d͡ʒ/
דּ‎ d d
ד‎ ḏ
ה‎
consonantal
 h
ה‎
silent
 none[A3]
ו‎
consonantal
 v w
וּ‎ u
וֹ‎ o [o̞] or [ɔ̝]
ז‎ z
ז׳‎ ž[B2][30] /ʒ/
ח‎ ẖ[C1] ḥ /x/ or /χ/ [χ]
dialectical
[ħ]
ט‎ t ṭ
י‎
consonantal
 y /j/
י‎
part of hirik male
(/i/ vowel)
 i
י‎
part of tsere male
(/e/ vowel or
/ei/ diphthong)
 e é /e/ or /ej/ [e̞] or [e̞j]/
כּ, ךּ‎[29] k
כ, ך‎ kh[C2] ḵ /x/ or /χ/ [χ]
ל‎ l
מ, ם‎ m
נ, ן‎ n
ס‎ s
ע‎
in initial or final
word positions
 		none[A4] ʿ only in initial
word position
[ʔ]
dialectical
/ʕ/
ע‎
in medial
word positions
 		' ʿ /ʔ/
dialectical
/ʕ/
פּ‎[D] p
פ, ף‎ f
צ, ץ‎ ts ẓ /t͡s/
צ׳, ץ׳‎ č[B3][30] /t͡ʃ/
ק‎ k q
ר‎ r [ʀ] or [ʁ]
dialectical
[r] or [ɾ]
שׁ‎ sh š /ʃ/
שׂ‎ s ś
תּ‎ t t
ת‎ ṯ
Notes

A1^ 2^ 3^ 4^ In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and final ע‎ (in regular transliteration), silent or initial א‎, and silent ה‎ are not transliterated. To the eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics – niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels). E.g., in אִם ("if", [ʔim]), אֵם ("mother", [ʔe̞m]) and אֹם ("nut", [ʔo̞m]), the letter א‎ always represents the same consonant: [ʔ] (glottal stop), whereas the vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not. Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains that א‎ in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop  ʾ  is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in the text being transliterated), resulting in "im", "em" and "om", respectively.

B1^ 2^ 3^ The diacritic geresh – "׳‎" – is used with some other letters as well (ד׳‎, ח׳‎, ט׳‎, ע׳‎, ר׳‎, ת׳‎), but only to transliterate from other languages to Hebrew – never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating a Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made). The non-standard "ו׳‎" and "וו‎" [e1] are sometimes used to represent /w/, which like /d͡ʒ/, /ʒ/ and /t͡ʃ/ appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords.

C1^ 2^ The Sound /χ/ (as "ch" in loch) is often transcribed "ch", inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language: חם /χam/ → "cham"; סכך /sχaχ/ → "schach".

D^ Although the Bible does include a single occurrence of a final pe with a dagesh (Book of Proverbs 30, 6: "אַל-תּוֹסְףְּ עַל-דְּבָרָיו: פֶּן-יוֹכִיחַ בְּךָ וְנִכְזָבְתָּ."), in modern Hebrew /p/ is always represented by pe in its regular, not final, form "פ‎", even when in final word position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g. שׁוֹפּ /ʃop/ "shop"), foreign names (e.g. פִילִיפּ /ˈfilip/ "Philip") and some slang (e.g. חָרַפּ /χaˈrap/ "slept deeply").

Religious use

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The letters of the Hebrew alphabet have played varied roles in Jewish religious literature over the centuries, primarily in mystical texts. Some sources in classical rabbinical literature seem to acknowledge the historical provenance of the currently used Hebrew alphabet and deal with them as a mundane subject (the Jerusalem Talmud, for example, records that "the Israelites took for themselves square calligraphy", and that the letters "came with the Israelites from Ashur [Assyria]");[36] others attribute mystical significance to the letters, connecting them with the process of creation or the redemption. In mystical conceptions, the alphabet is considered eternal, pre-existent to the Earth, and the letters themselves are seen as having holiness and power, sometimes to such an extent that several stories from the Talmud illustrate the idea that they cannot be destroyed.[37]

The idea of the letters' creative power finds its greatest vehicle in the Sefer Yezirah, or Book of Creation, a mystical text of uncertain origin which describes a story of creation highly divergent from that in the Book of Genesis, largely through exposition on the powers of the letters of the alphabet. The supposed creative powers of the letters are also referenced in the Talmud and Zohar.[38][39]

 
The four-pronged Shin

Another book, the 13th-century Kabbalistic text Sefer HaTemunah, holds that a single letter of unknown pronunciation, held by some to be the four-pronged shin on one side of the teffilin box, is missing from the current alphabet. The world's flaws, the book teaches, are related to the absence of this letter, the eventual revelation of which will repair the universe.[40] Another example of messianic significance attached to the letters is the teaching of Rabbi Eliezer that the five letters of the alphabet with final forms hold the "secret of redemption".[40]

In addition, the letters occasionally feature in aggadic portions of non-mystical rabbinic literature. In such aggada the letters are often given anthropomorphic qualities and depicted as speaking to God. Commonly their shapes are used in parables to illustrate points of ethics or theology. An example from the Babylonian Talmud (a parable intended to discourage speculation about the universe before creation):

Why does the story of creation begin with bet?... In the same manner that the letter bet is closed on all sides and only open in front, similarly you are not permitted to inquire into what is before or what was behind, but only from the actual time of Creation.

Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, 77c

Extensive instructions about the proper methods of forming the letters are found in Mishnat Soferim, within Mishna Berura of Yisrael Meir Kagan.

Mathematical use

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In set theory,  , pronounced aleph-naught, aleph-zero, or aleph-null, is used to mark the cardinal number of an infinite countable set, such as  , the set of all integers. More generally, the   aleph number notation marks the ordered sequence of all distinct infinite cardinal numbers.

Less frequently used, the   beth number notation is used for the iterated power sets of  . The second element   is the cardinality of the continuum. Very occasionally, a gimel function is used in cardinal notation.

Unicode and HTML

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Main articles: Unicode and HTML for the Hebrew alphabet and Hebrew keyboard
 
An example of a Hebrew keyboard.

The Unicode Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF and from U+FB1D to U+FB4F. It includes letters, ligatures, combining diacritical marks (Niqqud and cantillation marks) and punctuation.[16] The Numeric Character References is included for HTML. These can be used in many markup languages, and they are often used in Wiki to create the Hebrew glyphs compatible with the majority of web browsers.

Standard Hebrew keyboards have a 101-key layout. Like the standard QWERTY layout, the Hebrew layout was derived from the order of letters on Hebrew typewriters.

See also

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Notes

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a^ "Alef-bet" is commonly written in Israeli Hebrew without the maqaf (מקף, "[Hebrew] hyphen"), אלפבית עברי, as opposed to with the hyphen, אלף־בית עברי.

b^ The Arabic letters generally (as six of the primary letters can have only two variants) have four forms, according to their place in the word. The same goes with the Mandaic ones, except for three of the 22 letters, which have only one form.

c^ In forms of Hebrew older than Modern Hebrew, בי״ת‎, כ״ף‎, and פ״א‎ can only be read b, k and p, respectively, at the beginning of a word, while they will have the sole value of v, kh and f in a sofit (final) position, with few exceptions.[29] In medial positions, both pronunciations are possible. In Modern Hebrew this restriction is not absolute, e.g. פִיזִיקַאי /fiziˈkaj/ and never /piziˈkaj/ (= "physicist"), סְנוֹבּ /snob/ and never /snov/ (= "snob"). A dagesh may be inserted to unambiguously denote the plosive variant: בּ‎ = /b/, כּ‎ = /k/, פּ‎ =/p/; similarly (though today very rare in Hebrew and common only in Yiddish) a rafé placed above the letter unambiguously denotes the fricative variant: בֿ‎ = /v/, כֿ‎ = /χ/ and פֿ‎ = /f/. In Modern Hebrew orthography, the sound [p] at the end of a word is denoted by the regular form "פ‎", as opposed to the final form "ף‎", which always denotes [f] (see table of transliterations and transcriptions, comment[D]).

d^ However, וו‎ (two separate vavs), used in Ktiv male, is to be distinguished from the Yiddish ligature װ‎ (also two vavs but together as one character).

e1^ e2^ e3^ e4^ e5^ The Academy of the Hebrew Language states that both [v] and [w] be indistinguishably represented in Hebrew using the letter vav.[35] Sometimes the vav is indeed doubled, however not to denote [w] as opposed to [v] but rather, when spelling without niqqud, to denote the phoneme /v/ at a non-initial and non-final position in the word, whereas a single vav at a non-initial and non-final position in the word in spelling without niqqud denotes one of the phonemes /u/ or /o/. To pronounce foreign words and loanwords containing the sound [w], Hebrew readers must therefore rely on former knowledge and context.

Explanatory footnotes

  1. ^ Possibly rooted from Ancient Egyptian ḏ or dj.

References

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  1. ^ "Hebrew alphabet." Encyclopedia Britannica. "Square Hebrew became established in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce and developed into the modern Hebrew alphabet over the next 1,500 years."
  2. ^ Abu Elhija, Dua'a (23 January 2014). "A new writing system? Developing orthographies for writing Arabic dialects in electronic media". Writing Systems Research. 6 (2). Informa UK Limited: 190–214. doi:10.1080/17586801.2013.868334. ISSN 1758-6801. S2CID 219568845.
  3. ^ Gaash, Amir. "Colloquial Arabic written in Hebrew characters on Israeli websites by Druzes (and other non-Jews)." Jerusalem studies in Arabic and Islam 43 (2016): 15.
  4. ^ Shachmon, Ori, and Merav Mack. "Speaking Arabic, Writing Hebrew. Linguistic Transitions in Christian Arab Communities in Israel". Wiener Zeitschrift Für Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes, vol. 106, 2016, pp. 223–239. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26449346. Accessed 15 July 2021.
  5. ^ Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 21b–22a); Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 10a). Cf. Mishnah (Megillah 1:8): "The Books [of Scripture] differ from phylacteries and Mezuzahs only in that the Books may be written in any language, while phylacteries and Mezuzahs may be written in the Assyrian writing only." See: The Mishnah (ed. Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: London 1977, p. 202.
  6. ^ Naveh, Joseph (1987), "Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue", in Miller; et al. (eds.), Ancient Israelite Religion.
  7. ^ Smith, Mark S. (2002). The Early History of God: Yahweh and the other deities in ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8028-3972-5.
  8. ^ The Calendar Tablet from Gezer, Adam L Bean, Emmanual School of Religion Archived March 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ "Is it "Tenable"?", Hershel Shanks, Biblical Archaeology Review Archived December 25, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Spelling in the Hebrew Bible: Dahood memorial lecture, By Francis I. Andersen, A. Dean Forbes, p56
  11. ^ Pardee, Dennis. "A Brief Case for the Language of the 'Gezer Calendar' as Phoenician". Linguistic Studies in Phoenician, ed. Robert D. Holmstedt and Aaron Schade. Winona Lake: 43.
  12. ^ Chris A. Rollston (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-1-58983-107-0.
  13. ^ Saénz-Badillos 1993, p. 16.
  14. ^ Saénz-Badillos 1993, p. 61–62.
  15. ^ Saénz-Badillos 1993.
  16. ^ a b c d "Hebrew" (character code chart). The Unicode Standard. Unicode, Inc.
  17. ^ a b Unicode names of Hebrew characters at fileformat.info.
  18. ^ Tappy, Ron E., et al. "An Abecedary of the Mid-Tenth Century B.C.E. from the Judaean Shephelah." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 344, 2006, pp. 5–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25066976. Accessed 17 May 2024.
  19. ^ A. Dotan. “The Alphabet Inscription of 'Izbet Ṣarṭah / כתובת הא"ב מעזבת צרטה.” Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies / ארץ-ישראל: מחקרים בידיעת הארץ ועתיקותיה, vol. 16 (טז), 1982, pp. 62–69. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23619530. Accessed 17 May 2024.
  20. ^ Renz, Johannes; Röllig, Wolfgang (2016). Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik (in German). Darmstadt: WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). p. 62. ISBN 978-3-534-26789-7.
  21. ^ Berlin 2004, p. 4.
  22. ^ Goldingay 2022, p. 75.
  23. ^ First 2017.
  24. ^ First 2014.
  25. ^ Pitre & Bergsma 2018.
  26. ^ Kaplan, Aryeh. Sefer Yetzirah: The Book of Creation. pp. 8, 22.
  27. ^ "The Hebrew Alphabet (Aleph-Bet)". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  28. ^ Rendsburg, Gary A. (1997). "Ancient Hebrew Phonology" (PDF). In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.). Phonologies of Asia and Africa. pp. 70, 73.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  29. ^ a b c d "ךּ‎" is rare but exists, e.g. last word in Deuteronomy 7 1 (דברים פרק ז׳ פסוק א׳) in the word "מִמֶּךָּ‎" – see תנ״ך מנוקד, דברים פרק ז׳. There is a single occurrence of "ףּ‎", see this comment[D].
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i Transliteration guidelines preceding 2006-update Archived 2011-11-16 at the Wayback Machine, p. 3 Academy of the Hebrew Language
  31. ^ Laufer, Asher (2008). Chapters in Phonetics and Phonetic Transcription. Jerusalem: Magnes. pp. 207–211. ISBN 978-965-493-401-5.
  32. ^ "Hebrew lessons for Christians".
  33. ^ Sirat, Colette (1976), Ecriture et civilisations, Paris: Editions du CNRS.
  34. ^ "Resources for New Testament Exegesis – Transliteration Standards of The SBL Handbook of Style".
  35. ^ a b c d e "Transliteration guidelines" (PDF). Academy of the Hebrew Language. November 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2014.
  36. ^ Jerusalem Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin 21b
  37. ^ Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Pesach 87b, Avodah Zarah 18a.
  38. ^ Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot 55c
  39. ^ Zohar 1:3; 2:152
  40. ^ a b The Book of Letters. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, Woodstock. 1990

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