Wikipedia

Automatic train operation

(Redirected from Unattended train operation)
For other uses of "ATO", see ATO (disambiguation).

Automatic train operation (ATO) is a method of operating trains automatically where the driver is not required or required for supervision at most.[1] Alternatively, ATO can be defined as a subsystem within the automatic train control, which performs any or all of functions like programmed stopping, speed adjusting, door operation, and similar otherwise assigned to the train operator.[2]

Pictured is a train cab of a Kawasaki–CRRC Sifang T251 train serving the Mass Rapid Transit's Thomson–East Coast Line in Singapore. This line runs under ATO GoA 4, which is automatically controlled without any on-board staff.

The degree of automation is indicated by the Grade of Automation (GoA), up to GoA4 in which the train is automatically controlled without any staff on board.[3] On most systems for lower grades of automation up to GoA2, there is a driver present to mitigate risks associated with failures or emergencies. Driverless automation is primarily used on automated guideway transit systems where it is easier to ensure the safety due to isolated tracks. Fully automated trains for mainline railways are an area of research.[4] The first driverless experiments in the history of train automation date back to 1920s.[5]

Grades of automation

edit

See also: List of semi-automatic train systems and List of driverless train systems
 
A diagram representing the different levels of automation possible on railways
 
Operation scheme of ETCS Level 3 as an example for GoA2

According to the International Association of Public Transport (UITP) and the international standard IEC 62290-1, there are five Grades of Automation (GoA) of trains.[6][7][8] These levels correspond with the automotive SAE J3016 classification:[9][10]

Grade of automation Train operation Description and examples SAE levels
GoA0 On-sight No automation 0
GoA1 Manual A train driver controls starting and stopping, operation of doors and handling of emergencies or sudden diversions. Overseen signals due to human errors are safeguarded by train protection systems like ETCS L1.[11] 1
GoA2 Semi-automatic (STO) Starting and stopping are automated using advanced train protection systems like ETCS L2 or 3,[11][12] but a driver operates the doors, drives the train if needed and handles emergencies. Many ATO systems are GoA2. In this system, trains run automatically from station to station but a driver is in the cab, with responsibility for door closing, obstacle detection on the track in front of the train and handling of emergency situations. As in a GoA3 system, the GoA2 train cannot operate safely without the staff member on board. Examples include the London Underground Victoria line and New York City Subway 7 line. 2
GoA3 Driverless (DTO) Starting and stopping are automated, but a train attendant operates the doors and drives the train in case of emergencies. In this system, trains run automatically from station to station but a staff member is always in the train, with responsibility for handling of emergency situations. In a GoA3 system, the train cannot operate safely without the staff member on board. Examples include the Docklands Light Railway. 3 and 4
GoA4 Unattended (UTO) Starting, stopping and operation of doors are all fully automated without any on-train staff. It is recommended that stations have platform screen doors installed. In this system, trains are capable of operating automatically at all times, including door closing, obstacle detection and emergency situations. On-board staff may be provided for other purposes, e.g. customer service, but are not required for safe operation. Controls are often provided to drive the train manually in the event of a computer failure. CBTC is considered a basic enabler technology for GoA4.[11] Examples include the Singapore MRT, Milan Metro line 5, Milan Metro line 4, Line C (Rome Metro), Turin Metro, Brescia Metro, Paris metro lines 1, 4 and 14, Barcelona Metro line 9, Sydney Metro, Nuremberg Metro lines 2 and 3, the Copenhagen Metro, Honolulu Skyline, Delhi Metro Magenta/Pink/Grey Lines and the Suzhou Rail Transit line 11. 5

Additional types

edit
Grade of automation Description and examples
GoA1+ In addition to GoA1, there is connected on-board train energy optimisation (C-DAS) over ETCS.[13]
GoA2+ In case of Amsterdam Metro, a GoA2 is able to reverse in GoA4 at the final stations.[14] This is indicated by '+'. GoA2+ is also present on Bucharest Metro line M5, which uses the same URBALIS 400 CBTC as Amsterdam.
GoA2(+) This is GoA2 with additional functions related to metre-gauge railway.[15]
GoA2.5 Instead of a trained driver, a train attendant sits in the cab, with nothing to do except detect obstacles and evacuate passengers.[16] Kyushu Railway Company started commercial operation of automatic train operation using the ATS-DK on the Kashii Line (between Nishi-Tozaki and Kashii Stations) on a trial basis on December 24, 2020. The goal is to achieve GoA3, a form of "driverless operation with an attendant".[17]
GoA3+ An umbrella term for GoA3 and GoA4 meaning replacement of human train driver.[18] The terms GoA3/4, GoA3,4 and autonomous trains are used synonymously.[19][16]

Operation of ATO

edit
 
Early ATO trial on a R22 train at track 4 of the 42nd Street Shuttle (right) in 1962

Many modern systems are linked with automatic train protection (ATP) and, in many cases, automatic train control (ATC) where normal signaling operations such as route setting and train regulation are carried out by the system. The ATC and ATP systems will work together to maintain a train within a defined tolerance of its timetable. The combined system will marginally adjust operating parameters such as the ratio of power to coasting when moving and station dwell time in order to adhere to a defined timetable.[citation needed]

Whereas ATP is the safety system that ensures a safe spacing between trains and provides sufficient warning as to when to stop. ATO is the "non-safety" part of train operation related to station stops and starts, and indicates the stopping position for the train once the ATP has confirmed that the line is clear.[citation needed]

The train approaches the station under clear signals, so it can do a normal run-in. When it reaches the first beacon – originally a looped cable, now usually a fixed transponder – a station brake command is received by the train. The on-board computer calculates the braking curve to enable it to stop at the correct point, and as the train runs in towards the platform, the curve is updated a number of times (which varies from system to system) to ensure accuracy.[20]

When the train has stopped, it verifies that its brakes are applied and checks that it has stopped within the door-enabling loops. These loops verify the position of the train relative to the platform and which side the doors should open. Once all this is complete, the ATO will open the doors. After a set time, predetermined or varied by the control centre as required, the ATO will close the doors and automatically restart the train if the door closed proving circuit is complete. Some systems have platform screen doors as well. ATO will also provide a signal for these to open once it has completed the on-board checking procedure. Although described here as an ATO function, door enabling at stations is often incorporated as part of the ATP equipment because it is regarded as a "vital" system and requires the same safety validation processes as ATP.[20]

Once door operation is completed, ATO will accelerate the train to its cruising speed, allow it to coast to the next station brake command beacon and then brake into the next station, assuming no intervention by the ATP system.[20]

Advantages of GoA3+

edit

In 2021, the Florida Department of Transportation funded a review by scientists from Florida State University, University of Talca and Hong Kong Polytechnic University, which showed the following advantages of autonomous trains:[21]

  1. Eliminating human sources of errors
  2. Increasing capacity by stronger utilisation of existing rail tracks
  3. Reduction of operational costs. Paris Métro reduced its operational costs in case of GoA 4 by 30%.[22]
  4. Increasing overall service reliability
  5. Improving fleet management and service flexibility
  6. Increasing energy efficiency

Accidents and incidents involving ATO

edit

While ATO has been proven to drastically reduce the chance of human errors in railway operation, there have been a few notable accidents involving ATO systems:

Year Territory Incident
1993 Japan On 5 October 1993, an automated Nankō Port Town Line train overran the line's southern terminus at Suminoekōen Station and collided with a buffer stop, injuring 217 people. The cause was believed to have been a malfunction in some of the relays in the line's ATO equipment that transmits the brake command signal, causing the brakes to not operate.[23] Operations resumed on 19 November 1993 after redundancy equipment was installed and tested on the line.[24]
2011 China On 27 September 2011 at 14:51 hours local time (06:51 hours UTC), two trains on Shanghai Metro Line 10 collided between Yuyuan Garden station and Laoximen station, injuring 284–300 people. Initial investigations found that train operators violated regulations while operating the trains manually after a loss of power on the line caused its ATO and signalling systems to fail. No deaths were reported.[25]
2015 Mexico On 4 May 2015, at around 18:00 hours local time (00:00 hours UTC)[26] during heavy rain with hail,[27] two trains crashed at Oceanía station on Mexico City Metro Line 5 while both were heading toward Politécnico station.[28] The first train, No. 4, was parked at the end of Oceanía station's platform after the driver reported that a plywood board was obstructing the tracks.[29] The second train, No. 5, left Terminal Aérea station with the analogue PA-135 ATO system turned on despite the driver being asked to turn it off and to operate the train manually,[30] as the protocol requests it when it rains because trains have to drive with reduced speed.[31] Train No. 5 crashed into Train No. 4 at 31.8 km/h (19.8 mph)[30] – double the average on arrival at the platforms[29] – and left twelve people injured.[32]
2017 Singapore Joo Koon rail accident – on 15 November 2017 at about 08:30 hours local time (00:30 hours UTC), one SMRT East-West Line C151A train rear-ended another C151A train at Joo Koon MRT station in Singapore, causing 38 injuries. At that time, the East-West Line was in the process of having its previous Westinghouse ATC fixed block signalling and associated ATO system replaced with the Thales SelTrac CBTC moving block signalling system. One of the trains involved had a safety protection feature removed when it went over a faulty signalling circuit as a fix for a known software bug, hence "bursting" the signalling bubble and leading to the collision.[33]
2017 India Before the prime minister was supposed to ride the train and a few days before the opening, the train was undergoing ATO trails at the Kalindi Kunj Depot. As the train approached the buffer, it hit the buffers and derailed, hitting the front wall. The wall was eventually patched with bricks. However, it was eventually realized that the brakes were not applied by the train by default under the operation.[34] This led to the trains being controlled by drivers until 2024, delaying the full UTO operations by seven years.
2019 Hong Kong A similar incident as the above occurred on the MTR Tsuen Wan Line in Hong Kong on 18 March 2019, when two MTR M-Train EMUs crashed in the crossover track section between Admiralty and Central while MTR was testing a new version of the SelTrac train control system intended to replace the line's existing SACEM signalling system. There were no passengers aboard either train, although the operators of both trains were injured.[35] Before the crash site had been cleaned up, all Tsuen Wan line trains terminated at Admiralty instead of Central. The same vendor also provided a similar signalling system in Singapore, which resulted in the Joo Koon rail accident in 2017.[36] In July 2019, the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department (EMSD) published an investigation report into the incident and concluded that a programming error in the SelTrac signalling system led the ATP system to malfunction, resulting in the collision.[37]
2021 Malaysia 2021 Kelana Jaya LRT collision in Kuala Lumpur, in which 213 people were injured.[38]
2022 China On 22 January 2022, an elder passenger was caught between the traindoor and screendoor in Qi'an Road station of Line 15 (Shanghai Metro). On seeing the situation, the staff misoperated the traindoor controlling system, allowing the screen door to isolate without detecting, causing the train run a short while and fatally injuring the trapped passenger.[39]

ATO research projects

edit
Name Start year End year Description Country Volume
SMARAGT [de] 1999 Automatization of the Nuremberg U-Bahn[40] Germany
RUBIN [de] 2001 Automatization of the Nuremberg U-Bahn[41] Germany
KOMPAS I 2001 Driverless operation on mainline railways[42] Germany 4.85 million €[43]
AutoBAHN 2010 2014 Autonomous trains on existing regional railway lines[44] Austria 2.5 million €[44]
RCAS 2010 Collision avoidance without permanent installations[45] Germany
KI-Lok 2021 2024 Safe AI for the rail[46] Germany

2.47 million €[43]

SMART 2 2019 2022 Advanced integrated obstacle and track intrusion detection system for smart automation of rail transport[47] EU

1.7 million €[47]

safe.trAIn 2022 Development of AI-Enabled Automated Trains[48] Germany 24 million €
AutomatedTrain 2023 Fully automated staging and parking of trains[49] EU 42.6 million €[50]
R2DATO 2023 Rail to Digital automated up to autonomous train operation[51] EU 160.8 million €

Future

edit

In October 2021, the pilot project of the "world's first automated, driverless train" on regular tracks shared with other rail traffic was launched in Hamburg, Germany. The conventional, standard-track, non-metro train technology could, according to reports, theoretically be implemented for rail transport worldwide and is also substantially more energy efficient.[52][53]

ATO was introduced on the London Underground's Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines by 2022. ATO is used on parts of Crossrail. Trains on the central London section of Thameslink were the first to use ATO on the UK mainline railway network[54] with ETCS Level 2.

In April 2022, JR West announced that they would test ATO on a 12-car W7 series Shinkansen train used on the Hokuriku Shinkansen at the Hakusan General Rolling Stock Yard during 2022.[55]

The U-Bahn in Vienna was scheduled to be equipped with ATO in 2023 on the new U5 line.

All lines built for the new Sydney Metro feature driverless operation without any staff in attendance.

From 2012, the Toronto subway underwent signal upgrades in order to use ATO and ATC over the next decade.[56] Work has been completed on sections Yonge–University line.[57] The underground portion of Line 5 Eglinton was equipped with ATC and ATO in 2022. The underground portion will use a GoA2 system while the Eglinton Maintenance and Storage Facility will use a GoA4 system and travel driverless around the yard.[58] The Ontario Line is proposed have a GoA4 driverless system and will open in 2030.[59]

Since March 2021, SNCF and Hauts-de-France region have begun an experimentation with a French Regio 2N Class, equipped with sensors and software [fr] (fr).

In 2025, regular driverless passenger services on the line from Kopidlno to Dolní Bousov will be resumed by AŽD Praha.[60]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ "IEC 60050 - International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Details for IEV number 821-09-01: "automatic train operation"". www.electropedia.org. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  2. ^ IEEE Standard for Communications-Based Train Control (CBTC) Performance and Functional Requirements. doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.2004.95746. ISBN 0-7381-4487-8. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
  3. ^ "Thales and Knorr-Bremse will jointly develop ATO for freight trains". RailTech.com. 4 November 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  4. ^ "Europe's ERTMS dream enters a new era". International Railway Journal. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  5. ^ Liu, Hui (2021). Unmanned driving systems for smart trains. Amsterdam. ISBN 9780128228302.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ^ International Association of Public Transport. "A global bid for automation: UITP Observatory of Automated Metros confirms sustained growth rates for the coming years" (PDF). Belgium. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-01. Retrieved 2014-06-08.
  7. ^ Elisabeth Fischer (23 August 2011). "Justifying automation". Railway-Technology.com.
  8. ^ "IEC 62290-1:2014 – IEC-Normen – VDE VERLAG". www.vde-verlag.de. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
  9. ^ "Cross-Domain Fertilisation in the Evolution towards Autonomous Vehicles". ercim-news.ercim.eu. ERCIM News. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  10. ^ Nießen, Nils; Schindler, Christian; Vallee, Dirk (2017). "Assistierter, automatischer oder autonomer Betrieb – Potentiale für den Schienenverkehr" (PDF). Verkehr & Betrieb.
  11. ^ a b c Passerini, G. (2020). Computers in Railways XVII Railway Engineering Design and Operation. Southampton: WIT Press. ISBN 978-1-78466-403-9.
  12. ^ Peleska, Jan; Haxthausen, Anne E.; Lecomte, Thierry (2022). "Standardisation Considerations for Autonomous Train Control". Leveraging Applications of Formal Methods, Verification and Validation. Practice. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 13704. Springer Nature Switzerland. pp. 286–307. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19762-8_22. ISBN 978-3-031-19761-1.
  13. ^ European Union Agency for Railways (2017). "X2Rail–1 ATO over ETCS (up to GoA4)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-07-18. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  14. ^ Korf, Wim; Grinwis, Piet; Podt, Theo (2010). "Anticiperen op waardevol vervoer" (PDF) (in Dutch). Rapportage audit Noord/Zuidlijn. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-07-18. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  15. ^ Napoli, S. (2018). "01-03-00079 1.02 Branchenlösung ATO auf GoA2(+)". VÖV UTP (in German). Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  16. ^ a b "鉄道：鉄道における自動運転技術検討会 - 国土交通省". www.mlit.go.jp. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
  17. ^ "JR九州、自動運転の営業運転スタート！将来は「GoA2.5」の形態目指す | 自動運転ラボ" (in Japanese). 4 January 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  18. ^ Tagiew, Rustam; Buder, Thomas; Hofmann, Kai; Klotz, Christian; Tilly, Roman (2 July 2021). "Towards Nucleation of GoA3+ Approval Process". 2021 5th High Performance Computing and Cluster Technologies Conference. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 41–47. doi:10.1145/3497737.3497742. ISBN 978-1-4503-9013-2. S2CID 245426687. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
  19. ^ Lagay, Rémy; Adell, Gemma Morral (October 2018). "The Autonomous Train: A game changer for the railways industry". 2018 16th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems Telecommunications (ITST). pp. 1–5. doi:10.1109/ITST.2018.8566728. ISBN 978-1-5386-5544-3. S2CID 54463761.
  20. ^ a b c "ATO". Railway Technical Web Page. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012.
  21. ^ Singh, Prashant; Dulebenets, Maxim A.; Pasha, Junayed; Gonzalez, Ernesto D. R. Santibanez; Lau, Yui-Yip; Kampmann, Raphael (2021). "Deployment of Autonomous Trains in Rail Transportation: Current Trends and Existing Challenges". IEEE Access. 9: 91427–91461. Bibcode:2021IEEEA...991427S. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3091550. hdl:10397/92123. ISSN 2169-3536. S2CID 235749326.
  22. ^ Cohen, J. M.; Barron, A. S.; Anderson, R. J.; Graham, D. J. "Impacts of Unattended Train Operations (UTO) on Productivity and Efficiency in Metropolitan Railways". National Academy of Sciences.
  23. ^ "大阪市ニュートラム暴走事故 原因はリレー回路接続不良 運輸省が中間報告 ブレーキ指令伝わらず". Kotsu Shimbun. Kotsu Shimbunsha. 1993-11-09. p. 1.
  24. ^ "大阪市交「ニュートラム」 きょう運行再開". Kotsu Shimbun. Kotsu Shimbunsha. 1993-11-19. p. 1.
  25. ^ "Signal maker: Not to blame for Shanghai rail crash". AP.
  26. ^ "Un choque en el metro de México deja al menos 12 heridos" [A train crash at Mexico's metro leaves 12 injured]. El País (in Spanish). 5 May 2015. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  27. ^ Robles, Johana; Ruiz, Fanny (5 May 2015). "Chocan trenes en Línea 5 del Metro" [Trains crash ate Metro Line 5]. El Universal (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 30 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  28. ^ Shoichet, Catherine E. (4 May 2015). "Mexico City metro trains crash; injuries reported". CNN. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  29. ^ a b Noticieros Televisa (13 May 2015). "México:Dan a conocer detalles del choque en el Metro Oceanía" [Mexico: Details of crash at Oceanía station released]. Revista Rieles. Rieles Multimedio. Archived from the original on 30 May 2021.
  30. ^ a b "Error humano causó choque en Metro Oceanía, informa comité investigador". Aristegui Noticias (in Spanish). 12 May 2015. Archived from the original on 15 May 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  31. ^ Ferrer, Angélica (11 March 2020). "Y a todo esto, ¿cuántos choques han ocurrido a lo largo de la historia del Metro de la CDMX?" [And by the way, how many crashes have occurred throughout the history of the Mexico City Metro?]. El Financiero (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 30 May 2021.
  32. ^ Valdez, Ilich (12 May 2015). "Error humano causó choque de trenes en Metro Oceanía" [Human error caused train crash at Oceanía station]. Milenio (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  33. ^ Lim, Adrian (16 November 2017). "Joo Koon collision: 'Inadvertent removal' of software fix led to collision". Straits Times. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
  34. ^ "Driverless Delhi Metro Train Crashes Into Wall, These Memes Follow". NDTV.com. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  35. ^ "Hong Kong faces commuter chaos after rare train collision". Reuters. 18 March 2019.
  36. ^ "Signalling system in Hong Kong MTR train collision a 'version' of that used in Singapore". CNA. 19 March 2019. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  37. ^ "Investigation Report on Incident of the New Signalling System Testing on MTR Tsuen Wan Line" (PDF). Electrical and Mechanical Services Department. 5 July 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  38. ^ Azman, Fareez. "47 parah, 166 cedera ringan LRT bertembung berhampiran Stesen KLCC". Astro Awani. Retrieved 2021-05-24.
  39. ^ 董怡虹 (2022-01-24). "上海地铁一女乘客被屏蔽门夹住：送医抢救后身亡，有关部门已介入". 新民晚报 (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  40. ^ Ritter, Norbert (2001). "Einführungsstrategien für die Automatisierung von Nahverkehrsbahnen". ZEV DET Glasers Annalen – Die Eisenbahntechnik. pp. 129–130, 132, 134–137. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  41. ^ Trummer, Georg; Rappe, Jutta (2008). "RUBIN: Die erste fahrerlose U-Bahn im Mischbetrieb". ZEVrail. pp. 347–352. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
  42. ^ Haecker, Thies; Alcatel-SEL-Aktiengesellschaft, Unternehmensbereich Transportsysteme (2003). "Forschungsvorhaben Komponenten Automatisierter Schienenverkehr KOMPAS, Phase I : Schlussbericht". Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  43. ^ a b Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Referat Informationstechnik. "Förderkatalog" (in German). Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  44. ^ a b "autoBAHN - autonom fahrende EisenBAHN auf bestehenden Regionalbahnstrecken". Energieforschung (in German). Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  45. ^ Müller, Christoph (2010). "RCAS — Collision avoidance without permanent installations". Internationales Verkehrswesen : Transport and mobility management. pp. 20–22. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  46. ^ Hemzal, Georg; Firnkorn, Jörg; Sadeghipour, Sadegh; Leuschel, Michael; Schlingloff, Bernd-Holger; Großmann, Jürgen; Strobel, Timo (2021). "KI-LOK – Ein Verbundprojekt über Prüfverfahren für KI-basierte Komponenten im Eisenbahnbetrieb | Eurailpress Archiv". eurailpress-archiv.de. Ausgabe 10/2021.
  47. ^ a b "Advanced integrated obstacle and track intrusion detection system for smart automation of rail transport". CORDIS. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  48. ^ May, Tiana (29 September 2022). "safe.trAIn Project to Advance Development of AI-Enabled Automated Trains". Railway-News. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  49. ^ "LOK Report - Deutsche Bahn: Ausrüstung von zwei Regionalzügen mit modernster Sensortechnik für vollautomatisiertes Fahren". www.lok-report.de (in German). Retrieved 21 February 2024.
  50. ^ "Projekt "AutomatedTrain": Züge fahren vollautomatisiert und fahrerlos | Verkehrslage". verkehrslage.vkw.tu-dresden.de. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
  51. ^ "eurail-fp2". EU. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  52. ^ "Germany unveils first self-driving train". techxplore.com. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  53. ^ "Germany: Hamburg gets first fully automated tram | DW | 11 October 2021". Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com). Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  54. ^ "Thameslink first with ATO over ETCS". Railway Gazette. 20 March 2018.
  55. ^ "JR West to test ATO on W7 series Shinkansen". International Railway Journal. 25 April 2022. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  56. ^ Wheeler, Charles (2008-12-17). "Yonge Subway Extension – Recommended Concept/Project Issues" (PDF). TTC.
  57. ^ "Rail News – TTC extends signal system to Queen Station. For Railroad Career Professionals". Progressive Railroading. Retrieved 2020-12-12.
  58. ^ "How will the Eglinton Crosstown LRT's automatic train control work? We break down every major element in an infographic". 9 December 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  59. ^ "Ontario Line will be driven by proven tech rather than futuristic prototypes". 10 September 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  60. ^ "LOK Report - Tschechien: AŽD will Kopidlno - Dolní Bousov im Jahr 2025 autonom betreiben". www.lok-report.de (in German). Retrieved 23 March 2024.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_train_operation&oldid=1258121244#Unattended_train_operation"