General elections were held in Mexico on 4 July 1976.[1] José López Portillo was the only candidate in the presidential election, and was elected unopposed. In the Chamber of Deputies election, the Institutional Revolutionary Party won 195 of the 237 seats,[2] as well as winning all 64 seats in the Senate election.[3] Voter turnout was 65% in the Senate election and 62% in the Chamber election.[4]
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Background
editBefore the electoral reform of 1977, only four political parties were allowed to participate in the elections: the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the Popular Socialist Party (PPS), the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution (PARM) and the right-wing National Action Party (PAN), which was practically the only real opposition party at the time.[5]
The campaign and the elections took place during a tense period: the economic crisis, the leftist guerrilla uprisings in some parts of the country and the Dirty War the government took against them, were some of many issues that outgoing President Luis Echeverría faced and which jeopardised the power of the ruling PRI.
Nomination of the PRI presidential candidate
editSome of the PRI contenders for the party's 1976 presidential candidacy were:
- Mario Moya Palencia (Secretary of the Interior). He was initially perceived as the natural candidate to succeed President Luis Echeverría, given that Echeverría and his predecessor Gustavo Díaz Ordaz had been Secretaries of the Interior immediately prior to receiving the presidential nomination. Moya Palencia was also reported to have the support of the Army and most of the State Governors for his candidacy.[6]
- Porfirio Muñoz Ledo (Secretary of Labor). He was noted for his large government experience at his relatively young age, having had a meteoric rise in the PRI ranks. He was reported to have the support of the Confederation of Mexican Workers in his bid for the presidency.[6]
- Augusto Gómez Villanueva (Secretary of Agrarian Reform). Close to President Echeverría, his previous experience as President of the National Peasants' Confederation as well as his tenure as Secretary of Agrarian Reform solidified his leadership of the peasant sector, which supported his presidential bid.[6]
- José López Portillo (Secretary of Finance). He had little political experience - having previously been a law teacher and later working as a government bureaucrat-, but he had the particular advantage of being a childhood friend of President Echeverría, to whom he owed his government career, including his arrival at the Secretariat of Finance in 1973. López Portillo was not initially considered a serious contender for the PRI's presidential candidacy, as he didn't seem to have the support of any of the PRI's sectors for his bid, and he was relatively ignored by reporters and other politicians in comparison to the aforementioned contenders.[6]
In October 1974, the Instituto Mexicano de Opinión Pública (IMOP) carried out, for the first time in Mexican politics, an opinion poll to reveal the public's perceptions of the contenders and their chances to obtain the PRI presidential candidacy in 1976 and succeed Echeverría. 2,730 people were asked to choose which contender, in their opinion, better fit the following criteria:
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| IMOP Poll regarding the 1976 presidential succession | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Preferred candidate | The most viable candidate | The candidate most to the establishment's liking | |||
| Mario Moya Palencia | 41.4% | José López Portillo | 34.1% | Porfirio Muñoz Ledo | 37.3% |
| José López Portillo | 23.2% | Mario Moya Palencia | 29.3% | José López Portillo | 28.2% |
| Porfirio Muñoz Ledo | 20.6% | Hugo Cervantes del Río | 27.4% | Mario Moya Palencia | 19.8% |
| Hugo Cervantes del Río | 14.8% | Porfirio Muñoz Ledo | 25.6% | Hugo Cervantes del Río | 15.7% |
| - | Carlos Hank González | 14.6% | - | ||
| Carlos Gálvez Betancourt | 2.0% | ||||
| Luis Enrique Bracamontes | 1.6% | ||||
| Date: October 1974. Sample size: 2730. Source: [7][8] | |||||
Muñoz Ledo would later recall that during this period, he received a visit from President Echeverría. During the meeting at Muñoz Ledo's house, Echeverría went to the garden and commented that it was "too small to receive delegations". Muñoz Ledo understood the phrase as meaning that he would be the chosen one to succeed him as President, interpreting Echeverría's comment as referring to the PRI delegations that would visit his house to congratulate him on his nomination, and so he decided to buy the land that was behind the garden so as to enlarge it. However, he would later discover that he had misinterpreted Echeverría's comment, and that he wasn't his chosen candidate.[9]
In June 1975, Echeverría privately told López Portillo that he would be his successor,[10] and on 5 October he was officially nominated by the PRI as its presidential candidate for the 1976 elections.[11] The aforementioned Muñoz Ledo was then appointed both President of the PRI's National Executive Committee as well as General Coordinator of López Portillo's campaign,[12] while López Portillo appointed Julio Rodolfo Moctezuma as director of the party's Instituto de Estudios Políticos, Económicos y Sociales (IEPES).[13]
Echeverría would later state that he chose López Portillo to succeed him because, as President, "I was aware that the country's main problem was the financial one", which should be faced by his Secretary of Finance, "who had shared with me the attacks of a reactionary and obtuse private sector, which did not hesitate to place its funds abroad in their eagerness to break me down".[10]
Campaign
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The PPS and the PARM supported López Portillo's candidacy, as they had traditionally done with previous candidates for the PRI.
At the time, the opposition party PAN was going through internal conflicts and, for the first time upon its foundation, was unable to nominate a candidate for the 1976 presidential elections.
On the other hand, the Mexican Communist Party nominated Valentín Campa as their presidential candidate. At the time, however, this party had no official registry and was not allowed to participate in elections, so Campa's candidacy was not officially recognized and he didn't have access to the media. He had to run as a write-in candidate, as he would not appear in the ballots.[14]
These factors led to López Portillo effectively running unopposed. His campaign echoed this "unanimous" support for him, and his slogan was "La solución somos todos" ("All of us are the solution"). López Portillo later joked that, due to running without opposition, it would have been enough for "his mother's vote for him" to win the election.[15]
López Portillo had been separated from his wife Carmen Romano for some time, but upon being nominated by the PRI as its presidential candidate, the two of them were persuaded by PRI advisers to reunite and to maintain the appearance of a solid marriage, so as to not alienate the largely conservative, catholic populace.[16]
Popular Cuban singer Celia Cruz recorded a jingle for the López Portillo campaign, titled "¿Dónde estás, José?" ("Where are you, José"?). Other entertainers such as Enrique Guzmán and María Elena Velasco performed on an LP issued by the López Portillo campaign.[17][18]
In his campaign, López Portillo defended the infamous acarreo ("hauling", the practice of trucking PRI supporters to rallies to cheer its candidates in exchange for gifts of some kind),[19] saying that the attendees "are not ‘hauled’, they are ‘transported’ by the Party's own men and forces", adding that "All organized truck drivers in Mexico are part of the PRI and it is a tradition for them to take their vehicles to transport people to public events".[20] He further justified in his autobiography that there was "no reason not to facilitate, for example, to our peasants, transportation to public meetings, who concur, after all, to communicate with a System that governs them, through understandable acts in which they participate, see, hear, learn, express themselves and even, are distracted with trips and companies. The Party can, the Party must."[21]
Results
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President
edit| Candidate | Party | Votes | % | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| José López Portillo | Institutional Revolutionary Party | 15,435,321 | 92.27 | |
| Popular Socialist Party | 648,778 | 3.88 | ||
| Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution | 339,922 | 2.03 | ||
| Personal votes | 303,972 | 1.82 | ||
| Total | 16,727,993 | 100.00 | ||
| Registered voters/turnout | 25,913,066 | – | ||
| Source: INEGI, Nohlen | ||||
By state
edit| State | José López Portillo (PRI + PARM + PPS) |
Unregistered candidates | Null votes | Total | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Votes | % | Votes | % | Votes | % | ||
| Aguascalientes | 102,968 | 93.75% | 406 | 0.36% | 6,451 | 5.87% | 109,825 |
| Baja California | 314,950 | 91.44% | 1,559 | 0.45% | 27,893 | 8.09% | 344,402 |
| Baja California Sur | 46,458 | 94.12% | 201 | 0.40% | 2,699 | 5.46% | 49,358 |
| Campeche | 139,050 | 99.62% | 66 | 0.04% | 460 | 0.32% | 139,576 |
| Chiapas | 481,092 | 99.55% | 191 | 0.03% | 1,978 | 0.40% | 483,261 |
| Chihuahua | 403,350 | 89.19% | 1,800 | 0.39% | 47,073 | 10.40% | 452,223 |
| Coahuila | 516,436 | 99.76% | 927 | 0.17% | 312 | 0.06% | 517,675 |
| Colima | 62,973 | 97.29% | 382 | 0.59% | 1,371 | 2.11% | 64,726 |
| Durango | 341,960 | 98.79% | 850 | 0.24% | 3,330 | 0.96% | 346,140 |
| Federal District | 2,210,573 | 79.22% | 121,042 | 4.33% | 458,744 | 16.44% | 2,790,359 |
| Guanajuato | 810,619 | 97.99% | 1,546 | 0.18% | 15,022 | 1.81% | 827,187 |
| Guerrero | 689,829 | 98.74% | 1,585 | 0.22% | 7,189 | 1.02% | 698,603 |
| Hidalgo | 520,027 | 96.48% | 1,767 | 0.32% | 17,193 | 3.18% | 538,987 |
| Jalisco | 1,012,985 | 93.85% | 7,949 | 0.73% | 58,360 | 5.40% | 1,079,294 |
| Michoacán | 745,111 | 97.76% | 1,548 | 0.20% | 15,507 | 2.03% | 762,166 |
| Morelos | 204,312 | 92.21% | 2,413 | 1.08% | 14,825 | 6.69% | 221,550 |
| Nayarit | 205,738 | 97.05% | 649 | 0.30% | 5,589 | 2.63% | 211,976 |
| Nuevo León | 335,474 | 90.13% | 20,757 | 5.77% | 15,946 | 4.28% | 372,177 |
| Oaxaca | 760,754 | 99.73% | 1,581 | 0.20% | 474 | 0.06% | 762,809 |
| Puebla | 752,416 | 95.44% | 5,402 | 0.68% | 30,528 | 3.87% | 788,346 |
| Querétaro | 214,137 | 97.07% | 847 | 0.38% | 5,601 | 2.53% | 220,585 |
| Quintana Roo | 48,960 | 97.64% | 17 | 0.03% | 1,163 | 2.31% | 50,140 |
| San Luis Potosí | 495,863 | 97.75% | 3,789 | 0.74% | 7,615 | 1.50% | 507,267 |
| Sinaloa | 294,511 | 97.93% | 1,559 | 0.51% | 4,650 | 1.54% | 300,720 |
| Sonora | 514,678 | 99.55% | 597 | 0.11% | 1,725 | 0.33% | 517,000 |
| State of Mexico | 1,341,791 | 90.46% | 22,830 | 1.53% | 118,628 | 7.99% | 1,483,249 |
| Tabasco | 285,421 | 99.57% | 425 | 0.14% | 796 | 0.27% | 286,642 |
| Tamaulipas | 446,189 | 96.05% | 2,569 | 0.55% | 15,767 | 3.39% | 464,525 |
| Tlaxcala | 202,943 | 99.98% | 16 | 0.007% | 9 | 0.004% | 202,968 |
| Veracruz | 1,331,085 | 98.46% | 4,762 | 0.35% | 16,032 | 1.18% | 1,351,879 |
| Yucatán | 333,602 | 92.59% | 556 | 0.15% | 26,114 | 7.24% | 360,272 |
| Zacatecas | 296,683 | 98.57% | 1,476 | 0.49% | 2,826 | 0.93% | 300,985 |
| Total | 16,462,930 | 93.50% | 212,064 | 1.20% | 931,870 | 5.29% | 17,606,872 |
| Source: CEDE | |||||||
Senate
editJorge Cruickshank García from the Popular Socialist Party was elected Senator for the state of Oaxaca. Although he ran in coalition with the PRI and therefore was not an opposition senator, he was the first Senator not to come from the PRI since 1929.[22][23]
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Votes | % | Seats | +/– | |
| Institutional Revolutionary Party | 13,406,825 | 87.51 | 63 | 0 | |
| National Action Party | 1,245,406 | 8.13 | 0 | 0 | |
| Popular Socialist Party | 438,850 | 2.86 | 1 | +1 | |
| Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution | 188,788 | 1.23 | 0 | 0 | |
| Non-registered candidates | 40,662 | 0.27 | 0 | 0 | |
| Total | 15,320,531 | 100.00 | 64 | 0 | |
| Valid votes | 15,320,531 | 91.59 | |||
| Invalid/blank votes | 1,407,472 | 8.41 | |||
| Total votes | 16,728,003 | 100.00 | |||
| Registered voters/turnout | 25,913,066 | 64.55 | |||
| Source: Nohlen | |||||
Chamber of Deputies
edit | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Votes | % | Seats | +/– | |
| Institutional Revolutionary Party | 12,868,104 | 84.89 | 195 | +6 | |
| National Action Party | 1,358,403 | 8.96 | 20 | –5 | |
| Popular Socialist Party | 479,228 | 3.16 | 12 | +2 | |
| Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution | 403,274 | 2.66 | 10 | +3 | |
| Non-registered candidates | 49,471 | 0.33 | 0 | 0 | |
| Total | 15,158,480 | 100.00 | 237 | +6 | |
| Valid votes | 15,158,480 | 94.33 | |||
| Invalid/blank votes | 910,431 | 5.67 | |||
| Total votes | 16,068,911 | 100.00 | |||
| Registered voters/turnout | 25,913,066 | 62.01 | |||
| Source: Nohlen | |||||
Aftermath
editThere were many rumours that outgoing president Luis Echeverría was planning to carry out a coup d'état against his own candidate, López Portillo, to perpetuate himself in power.[citation needed] On August 13, the Liga Comunista 23 de Septiembre tried to kidnap Margarita López Portillo, sister of the president elect; the attempt failed and the Liga's leader, David Jiménez Sarmiento, was killed by security forces during the incident.[24]
In the end, López Portillo took office as scheduled on December 1 without further incidents.
Legitimacy in dispute
editAlthough the results ensured the PRI remained in power, the lack of opposition to José López Portillo raised concerns about the lack of legitimacy of the Mexican political system.[25][26] As a result, an electoral reform law was enacted in 1977, introducing partial proportional representation for the Congressional and Senate elections in order to ensure better representation of opposition parties – something extremely difficult under the first-past-the-post system that had been in force. However, the PRI retained its position as the dominant party, retaining the presidency until Vicente Fox of the National Action Party was elected in 2000.
The 1976 elections were the last in which a presidential candidate ran unopposed.
References
edit- ^ Dieter Nohlen (2005) Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I, p453 ISBN 978-0-19-928357-6
- ^ Nohlen, p469
- ^ Nohlen, p470
- ^ Nohlen, p454
- ^ Córdova, L (2003) La reforma electoral y el cambio político en México, p656
- ^ a b c d Ramos, Martinez & Ramírez. (March 1988). Salinas de Gortari: Candidato de la crisis. Plaza y Valdés Editores. p. 140. ISBN 968-856-128-2.
- ^ Guzmán García, Rodolfo (8 February 1975). "Una computadora está indicando al candidato ideal para la Presidencia". El Universal.
- ^ Sucesiones, Destapes y Elecciones Presidenciales 1916-1988 (Vol. III). El Universal. 1993. pp. 54–56. ISBN 968-6243-24-0.
- ^ Riva Palacio, Raymundo (28 July 2013). "El eterno Porfirio". Informador.mx. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
- ^ a b Ramos, Martinez & Ramírez. (March 1988). Salinas de Gortari: Candidato de la crisis. Plaza y Valdés Editores. p. 88. ISBN 968-856-128-2.
- ^ "Mensaje al pueblo en su protesta". El Informador. AEE. 6 October 1975. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
- ^ "Muñoz Ledo ya dirigió al PRI y ahora busca hacerlo con Morena". Grupo Milenio. 18 September 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
- ^ López Portillo, José (1988). Mis Tiempos: Biografía y testimonio político (Parte primera). Fernández Editores. p. 404. ISBN 968-416-832-2.
- ^ Gómez, S (2001) La transición inconclusa: treinta años de elecciones en México, p113
- ^ Uziel, C (2010) Los partidos políticos y las elecciones en México: del partido hegemónico a los gobiernos divididos, p143
- ^ Ajenjo, Manuel (11 September 2012). "Un consejo para La Gaviota". El Economista. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
- ^ Ramos, Dulce. "100 años de propaganda electoral mexicana en un museo". Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ "México, 100 años de propaganda política". Publímetro México. March 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ Preston, Julia and Samuel Dillon, Opening Mexico: The Making of a Democracy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux 2004, p. 56
- ^ López Portillo, José (1988). Mis Tiempos. Biografía y testimonio político. Primer tomo (First ed.). Fernández Editores. p. 416. ISBN 968-416-832-2.
- ^ López Portillo, p. 417
- ^ "DIARIO DE LOS DEBATES DE LA CAMARA DE SENADORES DEL CONGRESO DE LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS MEXICANOS (26 Agosto 1976)" (PDF). p. 17. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- ^ De Remes, Alain; Martínez, Jaqueline; Varela, Carlo. Presencia de la oposición en los órganos de elección popular (PDF). Instituto Belisario Domínguez. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- ^ "Secuestro fallido contra la hermana del presidente electo de México". El País (in Spanish). 13 August 1976. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
- ^ Riding, Alan (13 June 1976). "Mexico elects a symbol". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
- ^ G.T. Silvia (2001) La transición inconclusa : treinta años de elecciones en México, p35 ISBN 968-12-1042-5