Wikipedia

Absolute pitch

"Perfect pitch" redirects here. Not to be confused with Pitch Perfect.

Absolute pitch (AP), often called perfect pitch, is the ability to identify or re-create a given musical note without the benefit of a reference tone.[1][2] AP may be demonstrated using linguistic labelling ("naming" a note), associating mental imagery with the note, or sensorimotor responses. For example, an AP possessor can accurately reproduce a heard tone on a musical instrument without "hunting" for the correct pitch.[3][4][5]

About

edit

The frequency of AP in the general population is not known. A proportion of 1 in 10,000 is widely reported, but not supported by evidence;[6] a 2019 review indicated a prevalence of at least 4% amongst music students.[7]

Generally, absolute pitch implies some or all of these abilities, achieved without a reference tone:[8]

  • Identify by name individual pitches played on various instruments.
  • Name the key of a given piece of tonal music.
  • Identify and name all the tones of a given chord or other tonal mass.
  • Name the pitches of common everyday sounds such as car horns and alarms.

Absolute pitch is distinct from relative pitch. While the ability to name specific pitches can be used to infer intervals, relative pitch identifies an interval directly by its sound. Absolute pitch may complement relative pitch in musical listening and practice, but it may also influence its development.[9]

Adults who possess relative pitch but do not already have absolute pitch can learn "pseudo-absolute pitch" and become able to identify notes in a way that superficially resembles absolute pitch.[10] Some people have been able to develop accurate pitch identification in adulthood through training.[11]

Scientific studies

edit

History of study and terminologies

edit

Scientific studies of absolute pitch commenced in the 19th century, focusing on the phenomenon of musical pitch and methods of measuring it.[12] It would have been difficult for the notion of absolute pitch to have formed earlier because pitch references were not consistent. For example, the note known as 'A' varied in different local or national musical traditions between what is considered as G sharp and B flat before the standardisation of the late 19th century. While the term absolute pitch, or absolute ear, was in use by the late 19th century by both British[13] and German researchers,[14] its application was not universal; other terms such as musical ear,[12] absolute tone consciousness,[15] or positive pitch[16] referred to the same ability. The skill is not exclusively musical.

Difference in cognition, not elementary sensation

edit

Physically and functionally, the auditory system of an absolute listener evidently does not differ from that of a non-absolute listener.[17] Rather, "it reflects a particular ability to analyze frequency information, presumably involving high-level cortical processing."[18] Absolute pitch is an act of cognition, needing memory of the frequency, a label for the frequency (such as "B-flat"), and exposure to the range of sound encompassed by that categorical label. Absolute pitch may be directly analogous to recognizing colors, phonemes (speech sounds), or other categorical perception of sensory stimuli. For example, most people have learned to recognize and name the color blue by the range of frequencies of the electromagnetic radiation that are perceived as light; those who have been exposed to musical notes together with their names early in life may be more likely to identify the note C.[19] Although it was once thought that it "might be nothing more than a general human capacity whose expression is strongly biased by the level and type of exposure to music that people experience in a given culture",[20] absolute pitch may be influenced by genetic variation, possibly an autosomal dominant genetic trait.[21][22][23][24][25]

Influence by music experience

edit

Evidence suggests that absolute pitch sense is influenced by cultural exposure to music, especially in the familiarization of the equal-tempered C-major scale. Most of the absolute listeners that were tested in this respect identified the C-major tones more reliably and, except for B, more quickly than the five "black key" tones,[26] which corresponds to the higher prevalence of these tones in ordinary musical experiences. One study of Dutch non-musicians also demonstrated a bias toward using C-major tones in ordinary speech, especially on syllables related to emphasis.[27]

Linguistics

edit

Absolute pitch is more common among speakers of tonal languages, such as most dialects of Chinese or Vietnamese, which depend on pitch variation to distinguish words that otherwise sound the same—e.g., Mandarin with four possible tonal variations, Cantonese with nine, Southern Min with seven or eight (depending on dialect), and Vietnamese with six.[28][29] Speakers of Sino-Tibetan languages have been reported to speak a word in the same absolute pitch (within a quarter-tone) on different days; it has therefore been suggested that absolute pitch may be acquired by infants when they learn to speak a tonal language[30] (and possibly also by infants when they learn to speak a pitch-accent language). However, the brains of tonal-language speakers do not naturally process musical sound as language;[31] such speakers may be more likely to acquire absolute pitch for musical tones when they later receive musical training. Many native speakers of a tone language, even those with little musical training, are observed to sing a given song with consistent pitch. Among music students of East Asian ethnic heritage, those who speak a tone language fluently have a higher prevalence of absolute pitch than those who do not speak a tone language.[32][33][34]

African level-tone languages—such as Yoruba,[35] with three pitch levels, and Mambila,[36] with four—may be better suited to study the role of absolute pitch in speech than the pitch and contour tone languages of East Asia.

Speakers of European languages make subconscious use of an absolute pitch memory when speaking.[37]

Perception

edit

Absolute pitch is the ability to perceive pitch class and to mentally categorize sounds according to perceived pitch class.[38] A pitch class is the set of all pitches that are a whole number of octaves apart. While the boundaries of musical pitch categories vary among human cultures, the recognition of octave relationships is a natural characteristic of the mammalian auditory system.[39][40][41][42][43][44] Accordingly, absolute pitch is not the ability to estimate a pitch value from the dimension of pitch-evoking frequency (30–5000 Hz),[19] but to identify a pitch class category within the dimension of pitch class (e.g., C-C♯-D ... B-C).

An absolute listener's sense of hearing is typically no keener than that of a non-absolute ("normal") listener.[45] Absolute pitch does not depend upon a refined ability to perceive and discriminate gradations of sound frequencies,[46] but upon detecting and categorizing a subjective perceptual quality typically referred to as "chroma".[47][clarification needed] The two tasks— of identification (recognizing and naming a pitch) and discrimination (detecting changes or differences in rate of vibration)— are accomplished with different brain mechanisms.[48]

Special populations

edit

The prevalence of absolute pitch is higher among those who are blind from birth as a result of optic nerve hypoplasia.

Absolute pitch is considerably more common among those whose early childhood was spent in East Asia.[49][50][51][52] This might seem to be a genetic difference;[53] however, people of East Asian ancestry who are reared in North America are significantly less likely to develop absolute pitch than those raised in East Asia,[52] so the difference is more probably explained by experience. The language that is spoken may be an important factor; many East Asians speak tonal languages such as Mandarin, Cantonese, and Thai, while others (such as those in Japan and certain provinces of Korea) speak pitch-accent languages, and the prevalence of absolute pitch may be partly explained by exposure to pitches together with meaningful musical labels very early in life.[50][51][52][54]

Absolute pitch ability has higher prevalence among those with Williams syndrome[55] and those with an autism spectrum disorder, with claims estimating that up to 30% of autistic people have absolute pitch.[56][57][58] A non-verbal piano-matching method resulted in a correlation of 97% between[clarification needed] autism and absolute pitch, with a 53% correlation in non-autistic observers.[clarification needed][59] However, the converse is not indicated by research which found no difference between those with absolute pitch and those without on measures of social and communication skills, which are core deficits in autistic spectrum disorders. Additionally, the absolute pitch group's autism-spectrum quotient was "way below clinical thresholds".[60]

Nature vs. nurture

edit

Absolute pitch might be achievable by any human being during a critical period of auditory development,[61][62] after which period cognitive strategies favor global and relational processing. Proponents of the critical-period theory agree that the presence of absolute pitch ability is dependent on learning, but there is disagreement about whether training causes absolute skills to occur[63][64][65][66] or lack of training causes absolute perception to be overwhelmed and obliterated by relative perception of musical intervals.[67][68]

One or more genetic loci could affect absolute pitch ability, a predisposition for learning the ability or signal the likelihood of its spontaneous occurrence.[23][25][24]

Researchers have been trying to teach absolute pitch ability in laboratory settings for more than a century,[69] and various commercial absolute-pitch training courses have been offered to the public since the early 1900s.[70] In 2013, experimenters reported that adult men who took the antiseizure drug valproate (VPA) "learned to identify pitch significantly better than those taking placebo—evidence that VPA facilitated critical-period learning in the adult human brain".[71] However, no adult has ever been documented to have acquired absolute listening ability,[72] because all adults who have been formally tested after AP training have failed to demonstrate "an unqualified level of accuracy... comparable to that of AP possessors".[73]

edit

While very few people have the ability to name a pitch with no external reference, pitch memory can be activated by repeated exposure.[74] People who are not skilled singers will often sing popular songs in the correct key,[75] and can usually recognize when TV themes have been shifted into the wrong key.[76] Members of the Venda culture in South Africa also sing familiar children's songs in the key in which the songs were learned.[77]

This phenomenon is apparently unrelated to musical training. The skill may be associated more closely with vocal production. Violin students learning the Suzuki method are required to memorize each composition in a fixed key and play it from memory on their instrument, but they are not required to sing. When tested, these students did not succeed in singing the memorized Suzuki songs in the original, fixed key.[78]

Possible problems

edit

Musicians with absolute perception may experience difficulties which do not exist for other musicians. Because absolute listeners are capable of recognizing that a musical composition has been transposed from its original key, or that a pitch is being produced at a nonstandard frequency (either sharp or flat), a musician with absolute pitch may become confused upon perceiving tones believed to be "wrong" or hearing a piece of music "in the wrong key". The relative pitch of the notes may be in tune to each other, but out of tune to the standard pitch or pitches the musician is familiar with or perceives as correct. This can especially apply to Baroque music, as many Baroque orchestras tune to A = 415 Hz as opposed to 440 Hz (i.e., roughly one standard semitone lower than the ISO standard for concert A),[56] while other recordings of Baroque pieces (especially those of French Baroque music) are performed at 392 Hz. Historically, tuning forks for concert A used on keyboard instruments (which ensembles tune to when present), have varied widely in frequency, often between 415 Hz to 456.7 Hz.[79]

Variances in the sizes of intervals for different keys and the method of tuning instruments also can affect musicians in their perception of correct pitch, especially with music synthesized digitally using alternative tunings (e.g., unequal well temperaments and alternative meantone tunings such as 19-tone equal temperament and 31-tone equal temperament) as opposed to 12-tone equal temperament.[citation needed] An absolute listener may also use absolute strategies for tasks which are more efficiently accomplished with relative strategies, such as transposition[80] or producing harmony that is microtonal or whose frequencies do not match standard 12-tone equal temperament.[81] It is also possible for some musicians to have displaced absolute pitch, where all notes are slightly flat or slightly sharp of their respective pitch as defined by a given convention.[citation needed] This may arise from learning the pitch names from an instrument that was tuned to a concert pitch convention other than the one in use (e.g., A = 435 Hz, the Paris Opera convention of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as opposed to the modern Euro-American convention for concert A = 442 Hz). Concert pitches have shifted higher for a brighter sound. When playing in groups with other musicians, this may lead to playing in a tonality that is slightly different from that of the rest of the group, such as when soloists tune slightly sharp of the rest of the ensemble to stand out or to compensate for loosening strings during longer performances.[citation needed]

Synesthesia

edit

Absolute pitch shows a genetic overlap with music-related and non-music-related synesthesia/ideasthesia.[25] They may associate certain notes or keys with different colors, enabling them to tell what any note or key is. In this study, about 20% of people with absolute pitch are also synesthetes.

Correlations

edit

There is evidence of a higher rate of absolute pitch in the autistic population.[82] Many studies have examined pitch abilities in autism, but not rigidly perfect pitch, which makes them controversial. It is unclear just how many people with autism have perfect pitch because of this. In a 2009 study, researchers studied 72 teenagers with autism and found that 20 percent of the teenagers had a significant ability to detect pitches. Children with autism are especially sensitive to changes in pitch.[83]

Correlation with musical talent

edit

Absolute pitch is not a prerequisite for skilled musical performance or composition. However, there is evidence that musicians with absolute pitch tend to perform better on musical transcription tasks (controlling for age of onset and amount of musical training) compared to those without absolute pitch.[84] It was previously argued that musicians with absolute pitch perform worse than those without absolute pitch on recognition of musical intervals;[85] however, experiments on which this conclusion was based contained an artifact and, when this artifact was removed, absolute pitch possessors were found to perform better than nonpossessors on recognition of musical intervals.[86]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Deutsch, D. (2013). "Absolute pitch" (PDF). In D. Deutsch (ed.). The Psychology of Music (3rd ed.). pp. 141–182. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-381460-9.00005-5. ISBN 9780123814609. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  2. ^ Ward, W.D. (1998). "Absolute Pitch". In D. Deutsch (ed.). The Psychology of Music (Second ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 265–298. ISBN 0-12-213564-4.
  3. ^ Zatorre, Robert; Beckett, Christine (1989). "Multiple coding strategies in the retention of musical tones by possessors of absolute pitch". Memory & Cognition. 17 (5): 582–589. doi:10.3758/BF03197081. PMID 2796743.
  4. ^ Zatorre, Robert (July 2003). "Absolute pitch: a model for understanding the influence of genes and development on neural and cognitive function". Nature Neuroscience. 6 (7): 692–695. doi:10.1038/nn1085. PMID 12830161. S2CID 7431996.
  5. ^ Witynski, Max. "What Is Perfect Pitch? | The University of Chicago". news.uchicago.edu. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
  6. ^ Bachem, A. (November 1955). "Absolute Pitch". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 27 (6): 1180. Bibcode:1955ASAJ...27.1180B. doi:10.1121/1.1908155.
  7. ^ Carden, Jill; Cline, Tony (July 9, 2019). "Absolute pitch: Myths, evidence and relevance to music education and performance". Psychology of Music. 47 (6): 890–901. doi:10.1177/0305735619856098. ISSN 0305-7356. S2CID 199149622.
  8. ^ Parncutt, R.; Levitin, D. J. (2001). "Absolute Pitch". In Sadie, S. (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-56159-239-0.
  9. ^ Miyazaki, Ken'ichi (June 2004). "How well do we understand absolute pitch?". Acoustical Science and Technology. 25 (6): 270–282. doi:10.1250/ast.25.426. AP and RP are actually very different modes of musical pitch processing, having incompatible features, and therefore it may be possible that one can interfere the development of the other, and vice versa.
  10. ^ Levitin, D.J. (2008). "Absolute pitch: Both a curse and a blessing". In Clockars, M.; Peltomaa, M. (eds.). Music Meets Medicine, Proceedings of the Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation. Helsinki, Finland: Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation. pp. 124–132.
  11. ^ Wong, Alan C.-N.; Yip, Ken H. M.; Lui, Kelvin F. H.; Wong, Yetta Kwailing (January 28, 2019). "Is it impossible to acquire absolute pitch in adulthood?". bioRxiv 10.1101/355933.
  12. ^ a b Ellis, Alexander J (November 6, 1876). "On the Sensitiveness of the Ear to Pitch and Change of Pitch in Music" (PDF). Proceedings of the Musical Association. 3 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1093/jrma/3.1.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2010.
  13. ^ Bosanquet, R.H.M (1876). An Elementary Treatise on Musical Intervals and Temperament. London: Macmillan and Co. p. xiv. Retrieved August 24, 2010.
  14. ^ von Kries, J (1892). "Über das absolute Gehör" [About the perfect pitch]. Zeitschrift für Psychologie (in German). 3: 257–79. Retrieved August 24, 2010. Translation by Christopher Aruffo, www.acousticlearning.com
  15. ^ Abraham, O (1907). "Das absolute Tonbewußtsein und die Musik" [Absolute tone consciousness and music]. Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft (in German). 8: 485–90. Retrieved August 25, 2010. Translation by Christopher Aruffo, www.acousticlearning.com
  16. ^ Copp, E.F. (1916). "Musical Ability". Journal of Heredity. 7 (7): 297–305. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a110728.
  17. ^ Sergeant, D. (1969). "Experimental investigation of absolute pitch". Journal of Research in Music Education. 17 (1). Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 17, No. 1: 135–143. doi:10.2307/3344200. JSTOR 3344200. S2CID 144294536.
  18. ^ Gregersen, P. K. (1998). "Instant Recognition: The Genetics of Pitch Perception". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 62 (2): 221–223. doi:10.1086/301734. PMC 1376907. PMID 9463341.
  19. ^ a b Takeuchi, A. H.; Hulse, S. H. (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin. 113 (2): 345–361. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.345. PMID 8451339.
  20. ^ Wallin, N.L.; Merker, B.; Brown, S. (2000). The Origins of Music. A. Bradford. p. 13. ISBN 9780262731430. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
  21. ^ Profita, J.; Bidder, T. G. (1988). "Perfect pitch". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 29 (4): 763–771. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320290405. PMID 3400722.
  22. ^ Baharloo, S.; Johnston, P. A.; Service, S. K.; Gitschier, J. & Freimer, N. B. (1998). "Absolute pitch: An approach for identification of genetic and nongenetic components" (PDF). The American Journal of Human Genetics. 62 (2): 224–231. doi:10.1086/301704. PMC 1376881. PMID 9463312. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  23. ^ a b Theusch, E.; Basu, A. & Gitschier, J. (2009). "Genome-wide Study of Families with Absolute Pitch Reveals Linkage to 8q24.21 and Locus Heterogeneity". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (1): 112–119. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.06.010. PMC 2706961. PMID 19576568.
  24. ^ a b Drayna, D.; Manichaikul, A.; DeLange, M.; Snieder, H. & Spector, T. (2001). "Genetic correlates of musical pitch recognition in humans". Science. 291 (5510): 1969–1972. Bibcode:2001Sci...291.1969D. doi:10.1126/science.291.5510.1969. PMID 11239158.
  25. ^ a b c Gregersen, P.K.; Kowalsky, E.; Lee, A.; Baron-Cohen, S.; Fisher, S.E.; Asher, J.E.; Ballard, D.; Freudenberg, J. & Li, W. (2013). "Absolute pitch exhibits phenotypic and genetic overlap with synesthesia". Human Molecular Genetics. 22 (10): 2097–104. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddt059. PMC 4707203. PMID 23406871.
  26. ^ Miyazaki, K. (1990). "The speed of musical pitch identification by absolute-pitch possessors". Music Perception. 8 (2): 177–188. doi:10.2307/40285495. JSTOR 40285495.
  27. ^ Braun, M. (2002). "Absolute pitch in emphasized speech". Acoustics Research Letters Online. 3 (2): 77–82. doi:10.1121/1.1472336.
  28. ^ Deutsch, D.; Henthorn, T.; Dolson, M. (1999). "Tone Language Speakers Possess Absolute Pitch". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 106 (4): 2267. Bibcode:1999ASAJ..106.2267D. doi:10.1121/1.427738. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. Retrieved August 16, 2007.
  29. ^ Deutsch, D.; Henthorn, T.; Marvin, E.; Xu, H. (2005). "Perfect Pitch in Tone Language Speakers Carries Over to Music". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 116 (4): 2580. Bibcode:2004ASAJ..116.2580D. doi:10.1121/1.4808626.
  30. ^ Deutsch, D.; Henthorn T.; Dolson, M. (2004). "Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework" (PDF). Music Perception. 21 (3): 339–356. doi:10.1525/mp.2004.21.3.339. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  31. ^ Gandour, J; Wong, D. & Hutchins, G. (1998). "Pitch processing in the human brain is influenced by language experience" (PDF). NeuroReport. 9 (9): 2115–2119. doi:10.1097/00001756-199806220-00038. PMID 9674604. S2CID 19317553. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 12, 2006.
  32. ^ Deutsch, D.; Henthorn, T.; Marvin, E. & Xu H-S (2006). "Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period" (PDF). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 119 (2): 719–722. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..119..719D. doi:10.1121/1.2151799. PMID 16521731. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  33. ^ Deutsch, D.; Dooley, K.; Henthorn, T.; Head, B. (2009). "Absolute pitch among students in an American music conservatory: Association with tone language fluency" (PDF). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 125 (4): 2398–2403. Bibcode:2009ASAJ..125.2398D. doi:10.1121/1.3081389. PMID 19354413. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  34. ^ Deutsch, D.; Li, X. & Shen, J. (2013). "Absolute pitch among students at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music: A large-scale direct-test study" (PDF). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 134 (5): 3853–3859. Bibcode:2013ASAJ..134.3853D. doi:10.1121/1.4824450. PMID 24180794. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  35. ^ Connell, B.; Ladd, D. R. (1990). "Aspects of pitch realization in Yoruba". Phonology. 7: 1–29. doi:10.1017/S095267570000110X. S2CID 62215611.
  36. ^ Connell, B. (2000). "The perception of lexical tone in Mambila". Language and Speech. 43 (2): 163–182. doi:10.1177/00238309000430020201. PMID 11064955. S2CID 27622788.
  37. ^ Braun, M. (2001). "Speech mirrors norm-tones: Absolute pitch as a normal but precognitive trait" (PDF). Acoustics Research Letters Online. 2 (3): 85–90. doi:10.1121/1.1376728.
  38. ^ Rakowski, A. (1993). "Categorical perception in absolute pitch". Archives of Acoustics Quarterly. 18: 515–523.
  39. ^ Morest, D.K. (1965). "The laminar structure of the medial geniculate body of the cat". Journal of Anatomy. 99 (Pt 1): 143–160. PMC 1261468. PMID 14245341.
  40. ^ Cetas, J.S.; Price, R.O.; Crowe, J.J.; Velenovsky, D.S.; McMullen, N.T. (2003). "Dendritic orientation and laminar architecture in the rabbit auditory thalamus". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 458 (3): 307–317. doi:10.1002/cne.10595. PMID 12619083. S2CID 11430632.
  41. ^ Imig, T.J.; Morel, A. (1985). "Tonotopic organization in ventral nucleus of medial geniculate body in the cat". Journal of Neurophysiology. 53 (1): 309–340. doi:10.1152/jn.1985.53.1.309. PMID 3973661.
  42. ^ Cetas, J.S.; Velenovsky, D.S.; Price, R.O.; Sinex, D.G.; McMullen, N.T. (2001). "Frequency organization and cellular lamination in the medial geniculate body of the rabbit". Hearing Research. 155 (1–2): 113–123. doi:10.1016/S0378-5955(01)00257-X. PMID 11335081. S2CID 1027272.
  43. ^ Wright, A.A.; Rivera, J.J.; Hulse, S.H.; Shyan, M.; Neiworth, J.J. (2000). "Music perception and octave generalization in rhesus monkeys" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 129 (3): 291–307. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.129.3.291. PMID 11006902. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  44. ^ Braun, M.; Chaloupka, V. (2005). "Carbamazepine induced pitch shift and octave space representation". Hearing Research. 210 (1–2): 85–92. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2005.05.015. PMID 16181754. S2CID 32333789.
  45. ^ Fujisaki, W.; Kashino, M. (2002). "The basic hearing abilities of absolute pitch possessors". Acoustical Science and Technology. 23 (2): 77–83. doi:10.1250/ast.23.77.
  46. ^ Oakes, W. F. (1955). "An experimental study of pitch naming and pitch discrimination reactions". The Journal of Genetic Psychology. 86 (2): 237–259. doi:10.1080/00221325.1955.10532197. PMID 13263528.
  47. ^ Bachem, A. (1937). "Various types of absolute pitch". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 9 (2): 146–151. Bibcode:1937ASAJ....9..146B. doi:10.1121/1.1915919.
  48. ^ Tervaniemi, M.; Alho, K.; Paavilainen, P.; Sams, M. & Näätänen, R. (1993). "Absolute pitch and event-related brain potentials". Music Perception. 10 (3): 305–316. doi:10.2307/40285572. JSTOR 40285572.
  49. ^ P. K. Gregersen; E. Kowalsky; N. Kohn; E. Marvin (2000). "Early childhood music education and predisposition to absolute pitch". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 98 (3): 280–282. doi:10.1002/1096-8628(20010122)98:3<280::AID-AJMG1083>3.0.CO;2-6. PMID 11169569.
  50. ^ a b D. Deutsch; T. Henthorn; E. W. Marvin; H.-S. Xu (2006). "Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period" (PDF). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 119 (2): 719–722. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..119..719D. doi:10.1121/1.2151799. PMID 16521731. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  51. ^ a b Deutsch, D (2006). "The enigma of absolute pitch" (PDF). Acoustics Today. 2 (4): 11–19. doi:10.1121/1.2961141. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  52. ^ a b c Henthorn, T. & Deutsch, D. (2007). "Ethnicity versus Early Environment: Comment on 'Early childhood music education and predisposition to absolute pitch: Teasing apart genes and environment' by Peter K. Gregersen, Elena Kowalsky, Nina Kohn, and Elizabeth West Marvin (2000)" (PDF). American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 143A (1): 102–103. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.31596. PMID 17163519. S2CID 17543272. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  53. ^ Zatorre, R. (2003). "Absolute Pitch: A model for understanding the influence of genes and development on neural and cognitive function" (PDF). Nature Neuroscience. 6 (7): 692–5. doi:10.1038/nn1085. PMID 12830161. S2CID 7431996. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 7, 2008. Retrieved July 22, 2007.
  54. ^ Deutsch, D.; Henthorn, T. & Dolson, M. (2004). "Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework" (PDF). Music Perception. 21 (3): 339–356. doi:10.1525/mp.2004.21.3.339. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  55. ^ Lenhoff, H. M.; Perales, O. & Hickok, G. (2001). "Absolute pitch in Williams syndrome". Music Perception. 18 (4): 491–503. doi:10.1525/mp.2001.18.4.491.
  56. ^ a b Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4081-0.
  57. ^ Heaton, P.; Hermelin, B. & Pring, L. (1998). "Autism and pitch processing: A precursor for savant musical ability". Music Perception. 15 (3): 291–305. doi:10.2307/40285769. JSTOR 40285769.
  58. ^ Frith, U. How Cognitive Theories Can Help Us Explain Autism. Speech. UC Davis Mind Institute. Video available, 4/5 down the list: http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/mindinstitute/videos/video_autism.html Archived November 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  59. ^ Kupferstein, H.; Walsh, B. (2014). "Non-Verbal Paradigm for Assessing Individuals for Absolute Pitch". World Futures. 72 (7–8): 390–405. doi:10.1080/02604027.2014.989780. S2CID 142283540.
  60. ^ Dohn, Anders; Garza-Villarreal, Eduardo A.; Heaton, Pamela; Vuust, Peter (May 30, 2012). Krueger, Frank (ed.). "Do Musicians with Perfect Pitch Have More Autism Traits than Musicians without Perfect Pitch? An Empirical Study". PLOS ONE. 7 (5): e37961. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...737961D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037961. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3364198. PMID 22666425.
  61. ^ Sakakibara, A. (2004). "Why Are People Able to Acquire Absolute Pitch Only During Early Childhood?". The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology. 52 (4): 485–496. doi:10.5926/jjep1953.52.4_485.
  62. ^ Chin, C. (2003). "The Development of Absolute Pitch: A Theory Concerning the Roles of Music Training at an Early Developmental Age and Individual Cognitive Style". Psychology of Music. 31 (2): 155–171. doi:10.1177/0305735603031002292. S2CID 145615433.
  63. ^ Oura, Y.; Eguchi, K. (1982). "Absolute pitch training program for children". Music Education Research. 32: 162–171.
  64. ^ Sakakibara, A. (1999). "A longitudinal study of a process for acquiring absolute pitch". The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology. 47: 19–27. doi:10.5926/jjep1953.47.1_19.
  65. ^ Miyazaki, K.; Ogawa, Yoko (2006). "Learning of absolute pitch by children". Music Perception. 24 (1): 63. doi:10.1525/mp.2006.24.1.63.
  66. ^ Lau, C.K. (2004). "The acquisition of absolute pitch for the mainstreamed, special educational needs and academically talented under Lau Chiu Kay Music Educatherapy". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 116 (4): 2580. Bibcode:2004ASAJ..116.2580L. doi:10.1121/1.4785301.
  67. ^ Abraham, O. (1901). "Das absolute tonbewußtsein". Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft. 3: 1–86.Full text Full text (English)
  68. ^ Saffran, J. R. & Griepentrog, G. J. (2001). "Absolute pitch in infant auditory learning: Evidence for developmental reorganization" (PDF). Developmental Psychology. 37 (1): 74–85. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.1.74. PMID 11206435.[permanent dead link‍]
  69. ^ Meyer, M. (1899). "Is the memory of absolute pitch capable of development by training?". Psychological Review. 6 (5): 514–516. doi:10.1037/h0069034.
  70. ^ Maryon, E. (1924). The Science of Tone-Color (PDF). Boston: C. C. Birchard & Co. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 6, 2006. Retrieved September 5, 2006.
  71. ^ Gervain, Judit; Vines, Bradley W.; Chen, Lawrence M.; Seo, Rubo J.; Hensch, Takao K.; Werker, Janet F.; Young, Allan H. (2013). "Valproate reopens critical-period learning of absolute pitch". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 7: 102. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2013.00102. PMC 3848041. PMID 24348349.
  72. ^ Levitin, D. J. & Rogers, S. E. (2005). "Absolute pitch: Perception, coding, and controversies" (PDF). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9 (1): 26–33. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.11.007. PMID 15639438. S2CID 15346652. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 22, 2006. Retrieved June 11, 2006.
  73. ^ Takeuchi, A. H. & Hulse, S. H. (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin. 113 (2): 345–61. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.345. PMID 8451339.
  74. ^ Ben-Haim, Moshe Shay; Eitan, Zohar; Chajut, Eran (February 2014). "Pitch memory and exposure effects". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 40 (1): 24–32. doi:10.1037/a0033583. PMID 23875573.
  75. ^ Levitin, D. (1994). "Absolute memory for musical pitch: evidence from production of learned melodies". Perception & Psychophysics. 56 (4): 414–423. doi:10.3758/BF03206733. PMID 7984397. S2CID 17723148.
  76. ^ Schellenberg, E. Glenn & Trehub, Sandra E. (2003). "Good pitch memory is widespread". Psychological Science. 14 (3): 262–266. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.03432. PMID 12741751. S2CID 31453643.Full text[permanent dead link‍]
  77. ^ Blacking, John (1995). "Music and Historical Process in Vendaland". In Reginald Byron (ed.). Music Culture and Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 136. ISBN 0-226-08829-4.
  78. ^ Saah, Victoria; Marvin, Elizabeth West (2004). "Absolute memory of learned melodies in children trained by the Suzuki violin method" (PDF). Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition. pp. 736–739. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2011.
  79. ^ Ellis, Alexander (March 5, 1880). "On the History of Musical Pitch". Journal of the Society of Arts.
  80. ^ Miyazaki, K. (1993). "Absolute pitch as an inability: Identification of musical intervals in a tonal context". Music Perception. 11 (1): 55–72. doi:10.2307/40285599. JSTOR 40285599.
  81. ^ Harris, G. B. (1974). Categorical perception and absolute pitch. Ontario: University of Western Ontario.
  82. ^ Mottron, Laurent; Bouvet, Lucie; Bonnel, Anna; Samson, Fabienne; Burack, Jacob A.; Dawson, Michelle; Heaton, Pamela (2013). "Veridical mapping in the development of exceptional autistic abilities". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 37 (2): 209–228. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.016. ISSN 1873-7528. PMID 23219745.
  83. ^ "Perfect Pitch: Autism's Rare Gift | Interactive Autism Network". iancommunity.org. Retrieved November 18, 2022.
  84. ^ Dooley, K. & Deutsch, D. (2010). "Absolute pitch correlates with high performance on musical dictation". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 128 (2): 890–3. Bibcode:2010ASAJ..128..890D. doi:10.1121/1.3458848. PMID 20707458. S2CID 13958792. PDF Document
  85. ^ Miyazaki K. (1995). "Perception of relative pitch with different references: Some absolute-pitch listeners can't tell musical interval names". Perception & Psychophysics. 57 (7): 962–970. doi:10.3758/bf03205455. PMID 8532499. PDF Document
  86. ^ Dooley, K.; Deutsch, D. (2011). "Absolute pitch correlates with high performance on interval naming tasks". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 130 (6): 4097–4104. Bibcode:2011ASAJ..130.4097D. doi:10.1121/1.3652861. PMID 22225064. S2CID 2840110. PDF Document
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Absolute_pitch&oldid=1251316782"