The Arabization of Kirkuk (Kurdish: بەعەرەبکردنی کەرکووک)[4] began in Ba'athist Iraq in the 1960s. In line with the wider Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq, the Iraqi government worked to alter the demographic composition of the Kirkuk Governorate by ethnically cleansing non-Arabs—mainly Kurds, but also Turkmen and Assyrians, among others—and replacing them with Arab settlers. This campaign peaked under the rule of Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, who sought to ensure Arab control over northern Iraq (i.e., Iraqi Kurdistan), especially during the Iran–Iraq War.
| Arabization of Kirkuk | |
|---|---|
| Part of the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict and the Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq | |
 Statistics of the Kirkuk Governorate in the years 1957, 1977, and 1997: Arabs have become the ethnic majority by a landslide, while Kurds and Turkmen have seen their population dwindle due to the Iraqi government's demographic engineering. | |
| Native name | بەعەرەبکردنی کەرکووک |
| Location | Kirkuk, Iraq |
| Date | 1960s–present |
| Target | Kurds, Turkmen, Assyrians, etc. |
| Perpetrator |  Kingdom of Iraq (1921–1950s)[1] Ba'athist Iraq (1960s–2003) Iraq (2006–present)[2][3] |
Although the Ba'ath Party was toppled by the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the issue of Arabization in non-Arab regions has persisted and caused tensions between the Iraqi government in Baghdad and the autonomous Kurdistan Region, as attested by the cancelled Kirkuk status referendum and the 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum, which triggered the 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict.
Initiation
editThe Arabization of Kirkuk began in earnest during the late 1960s under Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime.[5] The policy was motivated by Kirkuk's rich oil reserves and its strategic location, which made control over the region crucial to the central government. The Ba'ath Party sought to ensure Arab domination of Kirkuk by forcibly displacing Kurds and other ethnic minorities and replacing them with Arabs from southern Iraq.[6]
Alongside Arabization, and before the Arabization began, Kirkuk went through the process of Turkification,[7] and after the declaration of monarchy in Iraq in 1921, the essence of Arabization and Turkification policies were pursued in the new country by the British authorities to balance the country's ethnic groups.[1] During the late Ottoman era, Turkification policies were implemented as part of efforts to centralize and unify the empire. These measures aimed to promote Turkish as the dominant language and culture, influencing multi-ethnic cities like Kirkuk. The administrative policies prioritized Turkish identity, which reinforced the presence of the Turkmens in the region. These efforts marginalized the Kurdish and Arab populations, creating linguistic and cultural tensions that shaped Kirkuk's demographic and political landscape into the modern era.[8][9]
Implementation
editThe Arabization policy involved forced evictions, land confiscation, and changing the administrative boundaries of the Kirkuk region to reduce the proportion of Kurds and other non-Arab populations. During this period, Kurdish and Turkmen residents were forced to sign "nationality correction" forms, requiring them to identify as Arabs or face expulsion.[10]
Many Kurdish families were displaced to remote areas or neighboring provinces, while Arab families from central and southern Iraq were encouraged to settle in Kirkuk, often receiving government incentives such as housing and employment.[11] Additionally, the government changed the names of neighborhoods and towns to reflect Arab heritage, erasing many elements of Kurdish and Turkmen identity.[12]
Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq
editFollowing the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime in 2003, there were efforts by displaced Kurds and Turkmen to reclaim their homes and lands. However, the issue of Arabization resurfaced after the 2017 Kurdish independence referendum when Iraqi forces regained control of Kirkuk, leading to renewed concerns about the forced resettlement of Arab populations.[13][14]
By 2024, local leaders continued to report ongoing efforts by the Iraqi central government to implement policies resembling the earlier Arabization strategies, causing heightened tensions between the different ethnic groups in the region.[15]
Human rights violations
editHuman Rights Watch has documented numerous abuses associated with the Arabization campaign, including forced displacement, destruction of homes, and the denial of basic rights to displaced Kurds, Turkmen, and Assyrians. These policies have contributed to long-standing grievances among these communities, who continue to demand restitution and compensation for their lost lands.[16]
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ a b Oğuzlu, Tarik H. (2004). "Endangered community: the Turkoman identity in Iraq". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 24 (2): 309–325. doi:10.1080/1360200042000296681. hdl:11693/49129. ISSN 1360-2004.
- ^ "پرۆسەی بەعەرەبکردنی جۆراوجۆر بۆ سەر کەرکوک بەردەوامە" (in Kurdish). K24. 30 July 2024. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
Hundreds of thousands of Arab teachers from central Iraq are being transferred to Kirkuk with their property and families, another form of the Arabization process, but under a legal guise.
- ^ "رئيس هيئة المناطق الكوردستانية: إجراء التعداد في كركوك خطر حالياً" (in Arabic). Rudaw. 24 July 2024. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
Now the Arabs are openly and en masse moving towards Kirkuk and there are reports that the Arabs are building villages outside Kirkuk, thus completely distorting the demographics of the province
- ^ Asasard, Farid (24 May 2023). "دەربارەی بەعەرەبکردنی کەرکووک". knwe.org (in Kurdish). کوردستانی نوێ. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
- ^ "The Kurdistan Memory Programme". kurdistanmemoryprogramme.com. Retrieved 2024-09-26.
- ^ "Historical Background and Ongoing Issues in Kirkuk" (PDF). DC Kurd.
- ^ Salih, Kaziwa (2022). "Demographic Engineering, the Forcible Deportation of the Kurds in Iraq, and the Question of Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide". State Crime Journal. 11 (2): 188–208. doi:10.13169/statecrime.11.2.0188. ISSN 2046-6056. JSTOR 48706339.
- ^ Liebisch-Gümüş, Carolin (2020). "Embedded Turkification: Nation Building and Violence within the Framework of the League of Nations 1919–1937". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 52 (2): 229–244. doi:10.1017/S0020743819000904. ISSN 0020-7438.
- ^ Anderson, Liam; Stansfield, Gareth (2009). Crisis in Kirkuk: The Ethnopolitics of Conflict and Compromise. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4176-1.
- ^ "The New Arabization of Kirkuk". DC Kurd. 11 December 2018.
- ^ "Kurds Fear Arabization in Iraq's Kirkuk". Asharq Al-Awsat.
- ^ "Challenge in Iraq's Other Cities: Kirkuk". CFR.
- ^ "Renewed Arabization of Kirkuk Post-2017". CNN. 16 October 2017.
- ^ "Kurds Criticize New Arabization Efforts in Kirkuk". Esta Media Network. 13 December 2020.
- ^ "Arabization Policies Reignite Tensions in Kirkuk". Rudaw.
- ^ "Iraq: Claims in Conflict". Human Rights Watch.