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Basidiolichen

Basidiolichens are lichenized members of the division Basidiomycota within the subkingdom Dikarya of the kingdom Fungi. They form a diverse yet much smaller group of lichens than the far more common ascolichens of the division Ascomycota.[1] Owing to how few described species there are, basidiolichens are generally considered to be poorly researched, and few studies that characterize their natural products exist. Biogeographically, basidiolichen species may be distributed in a cosmopolitan manner or more regionally, ranging from arctic and montane habitats to more temperate and tropical environments. Morphologically, basidiocarp (fruiting body) and thallus (vegetative tissue) structures may vary widely within and between basidiolichen genera.[2]

Cora glabrata
Lichenomphalia umbellifera
Multiclavula mucida

Taxonomy

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Basidiolichen mycobionts comprise 172 known species (0.9% of the total number of accepted lichen species) across 15 genera, 5 families, and 5 orders within the class Agaricomycetes.[1] The majority of described basidiolichen mycobionts belong to the genus Cora, followed by the genera Dictyonema and Multiclavula. Other genera include Acantholichen, Arrhenia, Athelia, Athelopsis, Corella, Cyphellostereum, Ertzia, Lepidostroma, Lichenomphalia, Marchandiomphalina, Semiomphalina, and Sulzbacheromyces.[1][2] The species Marasmiellus affixus is suggested to be yet another lichen-forming basidiomycete,[3] but this has yet to be proven.[2][4] As a distinction, many basidiomycetes are lichenicolous and exclusively inhabit their host lichens;[5] these interactions, however, are secondary to the mycobiont-photobiont interaction that determines more directly whether a lichen is considered an ascolichen or basidiolichen.

Basidiolichen photobionts have been described as belonging to the cyanobacterial genera Scytonema and Rhizonema and to the algal genera Coccomyxa (class Trebouxiophyceae) and Bracteacoccus (class Chlorophyceae).[2][6]

Biogeography

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While localized primarily in the tropical and montane environments of Central and South America, specimens of the basidiolichen genus Cora have also been identified in the South Atlantic, Africa, and Asia.[7]

In arctic, alpine, and temperate forests, the most common basidiolichens are in the agaric genus Lichenomphalia[8] (including former members of Omphalina or Gerronema) and the clavarioid genus Multiclavula.[9] Several lichenized genera occur in tropical regions, the most common being the foliose Dictyonema.

Morphology

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The interactions between mycobionts and photobionts in basidiolichens occur primarily at the level of the thallus. In basidiolichens of the genera Acantholichen, Cora, and Dictyonema, photobionts may be penetrated by hyphal tips called haustoria and thereby assimilated into the complete lichen thallus. In some Lepidostroma species, the hyphal tips may develop into flattened appressoria to interact with the photobiont. In species of Athelia, Athelopsis, Cyphellostereum, Lepidostroma, and especially Multiclavula, the association takes the form of globular photobiont clusters ensheathed by fungal hyphae.[2]

Basidiolichen genera within the family Hygrophoraceae possess a variety of basidiocarp structures. Within the genus Cora, fruiting bodies are often lobed and may be glabrous (smooth and glossy) or setose (bristly), ranging in color from green to white.[10] Basidiolichens of the genus Lichenomphalia are more agaricoid (mushroom-like) in appearance, possessing a funnel-shaped cap, stalk, and gills. Members of Cyphellostereum form small white fan-like basidiocarps. The genus Multiclavula of the family Clavulinaceae as well as the genera within the family Lepidostromataceae are characterized by their clavarioid (erect, club-shaped, sometimes branching) fruiting bodies. The genus Marchandiomphalina of the family Corticiaceae is comprised of only one species, the corticoid (crust-like) basidiolichen M. foliacea. Its lack of any conspicuous basidiocarps is a quality shared also by the two basidiolichen species of the family Atheliaceae.[2]

Natural products

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The lichen species Cora glabrata has been reported to produce a hemagglutinating lectin[11] as well as various polysaccharides, including a unique (1→6)-linked β-D-mannan.[12]

Tentative chemical analyses suggest that the newly described Dictyonema huaorani produces the psychedelic psilocybin.[13] The basidiolichen was previously reported to have been used in the Ecuadorian Amazon by Huaorani shamans to call upon evil spirits and curse people.[14]

References

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  1. ^ a b c Lücking, Robert; Hodkinson, Brendan P.; Leavitt, Steven D. (2017-01-03). "The 2016 classification of lichenized fungi in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota – Approaching one thousand genera". The Bryologist. 119 (4): 361. doi:10.1639/0007-2745-119.4.361. ISSN 0007-2745.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Oberwinkler, F. (2012), Hock, Bertold (ed.), "16 Basidiolichens", Fungal Associations, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 341–362, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30826-0_16, ISBN 978-3-642-30826-0, retrieved 2024-09-17
  3. ^ Dennis, R. W. G.; Singer, R. (1973). "The Genera Marasmiellus, Crepidotus and Simocybe in the Neotropics". Mycologia. 66 (2): 382. doi:10.2307/3758379. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3758379.
  4. ^ "Marasmiellus affixus - Lichen Case Studies". www.anbg.gov.au. Retrieved 2024-10-19.
  5. ^ Diederich, Paul; Millanes, Ana M.; Wedin, Mats; Lawrey, James D. (20 August 2022). Flora of Lichenicolous Fungi. Basidiomycota (PDF). Vol. 1. Luxembourg: National Museum of Natural History. p. 351. ISBN 978-2-919877-26-3.
  6. ^ Hodkinson, Brendan P.; Moncada, Bibiana; Lücking, Robert (2014). "Lepidostromatales, a new order of lichenized fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes), with two new genera, Ertzia and Sulzbacheromyces, and one new species, Lepidostroma winklerianum". Fungal Diversity. 64 (1): 165–179. doi:10.1007/s13225-013-0267-0. ISSN 1560-2745.
  7. ^ Moncada, Bibiana; Pérez-Pérez, Rosa Emilia; Lücking, Robert (2019-12-01). "The lichenized genus Cora (Basidiomycota: Hygrophoraceae) in Mexico: high species richness, multiple colonization events, and high endemism". Plant and Fungal Systematics. 64 (2): 393–411. doi:10.2478/pfs-2019-0026. ISSN 2657-5000.
  8. ^ "Lichenomphalia umbellifera. photo - cvcc photos at pbase.com". Retrieved 2009-01-12.
  9. ^ "Multiclavula corynoides". Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
  10. ^ Moncada, Bibiana; Pérez-Pérez, Rosa Emilia; Lücking, Robert (2019-12-01). "The lichenized genus Cora (Basidiomycota: Hygrophoraceae) in Mexico: high species richness, multiple colonization events, and high endemism". Plant and Fungal Systematics. 64 (2): 393–411. doi:10.2478/pfs-2019-0026. ISSN 2657-5000.
  11. ^ Elifio, Selene L.; De Lourdes C. C. Da Silva, Maria; Iacomini, Marcello; Gorin, Philip A. J. (2000-11-27). "A lectin from the lichenized Basidiomycete Dictyonema glabratum". New Phytologist. 148 (2): 327–334. Bibcode:2000NewPh.148..327E. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00758.x. ISSN 0028-646X.
  12. ^ Carbonero, E (2002-01-10). "A (1→6)-linked β-mannopyrananan, pseudonigeran, and a (1→4)-linked β-xylan, isolated from the lichenised basidiomycete Dictyonema glabratum". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 206 (2): 175–178. doi:10.1016/S0378-1097(01)00506-7 (inactive 3 December 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
  13. ^ Schmull, Michaela; Dal-Forno, Manuela; Lücking, Robert; Cao, Shugeng; Clardy, Jon; Lawrey, James D (2014). "Dictyonema huaorani (Agaricales: Hygrophoraceae), a new lichenized basidiomycete from Amazonian Ecuador with presumed hallucinogenic properties". The Bryologist. 117 (4): 386–394. doi:10.1639/0007-2745-117.4.386. ISSN 0007-2745.
  14. ^ Davis, E. Wade; Yost, James A. (1983). "Novel Hallucinogens from Eastern Ecuador". Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University. 29 (3): 291–295. doi:10.5962/p.168664. ISSN 0006-8098. JSTOR 41762852.
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