Torfajökull (Icelandic for "Torfi's glacier"; Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈtʰɔrvaˌjœːkʏtl̥] ) is a rhyolitic stratovolcano, with a large caldera (central volcano) capped by a glacier of the same name and associated with a complex of subglacial volcanoes. Torfajökull last erupted in 1477 and consists of the largest area of silicic extrusive rocks in Iceland. This is now known to be due to a VEI 5 eruption 55,000 years ago.
| Torfajökull | |
|---|---|
 Torfajökull | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 1,281 m (4,203 ft)[1][a] |
| Coordinates | 63°55′00″N 19°10′00″W / 63.91667°N 19.16667°W |
| Dimensions | |
| Area | 450 km2 (170 sq mi)[2] |
| Geography | |
  Torfajökull | |
| Geology | |
| Rock age | Pleistocene |
| Mountain type | Stratovolcano |
| Last eruption | March 1477 |
 Geological features near the Torfajökull volcanic system (red outlines) - In particular note that the Bárðarbunga volcanic system is also emphasised as the last two Torfajökull rhyolites (877 and 1477 CE) were erupted simultaneous with Veidivötn (Bárðarbunga) basalts (Light violet shading). Other shading shows: calderas, central volcanoes and fissure swarms, subglacial terrain above 1,100 m (3,600 ft), and seismically active areas. Clicking on the image enlarges to full window and enables mouse-over with more detail. | |
Geography
editThe volcano is located north of Mýrdalsjökull and south of Þórisvatn Lake, Iceland. To its south-west is the volcano and glacier of Tindfjallajökull and almost directly to its west is the volcano of Hekla. Adjacent to the southern edge of its glacier of Torfajökull it has a peak of 1,199 m (3,934 ft) but the south-eastern caldera margin also extends to the glacier of Kaldaklofsjökull which is on the western slopes of a peak called Háskerðingur that is 1,281 m (4,203 ft) high.[1][a] Laufafell dome at 1,164 m (3,819 ft) is at the north-western edge of the Torfajökull volcanic system and almost halfway between Hekla and the glacier of Torfajökull.
Volcano
editThe volcano's eruption around 870, a combined bimodal eruption (rhyolite-basalt) with additional input from a Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system dyke,[5]: 388 has left a thin layer of easily recognized mixed tephra all over Iceland, the Settlement Layer or Landnámslag.[6]: 129 This layer makes it possible to determine the exact dates of many archeological finds by tephrochronology, and such have been dated in the The Settlement Exhibition, Reykjavík City Museum to before 877 ± 2 CE.[b] There was another bimodal eruption in March 1477.
Geology
editAmongst Icelandic volcanoes Torfajökull has a unique position at the intersection of the rift zone that is the extension of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the South Iceland seismic zone transform zone that connects to the Reykjanes Peninsula/ridge.[10]: 2920 The central volcano, is a rhyolitic plateau 600 m (2,000 ft) above the surrounding tholeiitic basalts with initial formation at least 384,000 years ago.[11] As well as containing the largest geothermal system in Iceland at 150 km2 (58 sq mi), it has a 18 km × 12 km (11.2 mi × 7.5 mi) caldera, with 450 km2 (170 sq mi) of rhyolitic exposed extrusives, which is the largest extent of such rocks in Iceland.[2] The largest volume of rhyolite, being 25 km3 (6.0 cu mi) was erupted as the Þórsmörk ignimbrite and widespread North Atlantic and Greenland II-RHY-1 tephra layer about 55,000 years ago.[12][c]
Within the area of the rhyolitic caldera there are younger extrusives that involve basaltic magma mixing events by lateral propagation, from the fissure swarm of Bárðarbunga's Veidivötn volcanic system.[10]: 2921 The postglacial rhyolites were produced by partial melts of previously intruded mafic basalts that started forming between 17,000 and 62,000 years ago.[5]: 395–6 It is known from elsewhere in Iceland that the melting of previous hydrated basaltic crust can be rapid over periods perhaps of 8000 years.[5]: 388 That the last three (not just two) of these,[5]: 389 erupted simultaneous with the Veidivötn tholeiitic basalts along single, continuous fissures, indicates that the magma plumbing systems of the Torfajökull and southern Bárðarbunga volcanic systems are presently tectonically linked.[5]: 388 Older rhyolites from west Torfajökull, arose from melts sourced from the transitional alkali basalts that are abundant in the South Iceland seismic zone and did not involve basalt sourcing and presumed intrusions from the Bárðarbunga volcanic system.[5]: 388
Seismic Activity
editIn the area of highest temperature geothermal activity of more than 340 °C (644 °F), there is an area of low-frequency earthquakes.[10]: 2921 An area of high-frequency earthquakes (4–10 Hz with magnitude less than 3) is in the western caldera, beneath the most recent eruptive sites, is believed to be related to brittle failure of the volcanic edifice.[10]: 2921 The western caldera is deflating vertically by about 12 mm (0.47 in)/year and there is evidence for a spherical 4 km (2.5 mi) diameter magma chamber at 8 km (5.0 mi) depth.[10]: 2921 Seismic studies have also detected structures between 1.5–6 km (0.93–3.73 mi) depth consistent with cold dikes along the north–east caldera border, and beyond the caldera, to its south–west and east, there are anomalies consistent with the presence of warm magma bodies.[10]: 2938
Eruptions
editThe last four eruptions have been separated by about 940 years.[11] The largest eruption known at about 55,400 years ago had a VEI of 5 or magnitude of 5.9.[13]
The 1477 eruption involved the Laugahraun basaltic flow within the northern caldera and the Námshraun, Stútshraun (Norðurnámshraun), Frostastaðahraun, and Ljótipollur basalt flows to the north of Torfajökull's caldera boundary by up to about 5 km (3.1 mi).[5]: 388 The eruptive fissure is at least 40 km (25 mi) long extending to the north.
The 877 eruption is associated with the Bláhylur basalt explosion crater, which is located 2 km (1.2 mi) to the west of the later Ljótipollur flow and its fissure. On the other side of the caldera the 877 intrusion erupted at the west edge of the caldera rim the Hrafntinnuhraun flow.[5]: 388 [b] This eruption has a VEI of 3,[4] with the Hrafntinnuhraun lava having a volume of 0.18 km3 (0.043 cu mi) and tephra to a volume of 0.4 km3 (0.096 cu mi) being erupted.[11]
The younger part of the Dómadalshraun (Dómadalur) lava flows erupted about 150 CE west of the 1477 Namshraun flow,[5]: 388 and has an area of 6 km2 (2.3 sq mi) and volume about 0.1 km3 (0.024 cu mi). To the north the 60 km2 (23 sq mi) Tjörvi lava was erupted simultaneously but from the Bárðarbunga Veidivötn fissure swam.[11]
The older Dómadalshraun to its south of about 3100 BP is about 4 km (2.5 mi) west of the 1477 Námshraun flow.[5]: 388
The Markarfljöt domes formed about 3500 BP and are in the western central volcano area.[5]: 388
Just to the west of Laugahraun, and just outside the caldera margin is the Haölduhraun lava flow of about 6500 BP.[5]: 388 The Hoy tephra from about this time is dated as between 6600 and 6120 cal BP, and the Lairg B tephra is dated as between 6728 and 6564 cal BP.[14]
The Laufafell basalt lavas in the in the western central volcano area erupted about 6800 BP and are close to the Laufafell domes.[5]: 388
The oldest Dómadalshraun lava flow is dated to about 7000 BP and is about 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the Haölduhraun flow.[5]: 388
Just to the east of the Hrafntinnuhraun flow from the 877 eruption is the Sléttahraun lava flow that erupted about 8000 BP and east of that the Hrafntinnusker flow of about 7500 BP,[5]: 388 [b] which had an area of 9 km2 (3.5 sq mi) and volume up to 0.4 km3 (0.096 cu mi).[11]
The Þórsmörk (Thorsmork) ignimbrite and widespread North Atlantic and Greenland II-RHY-1 tephra layer of 55,380 ± 2367 yr b2k[12] Other ages determined 40Ar/39Ar dating are 51.3 ± 4.2 ka and 55.6 ± 4.8 ka.[12][15] This, the largest known eruption had previously assigned to Tindfjöll (Tindfjallajökull) to the south in the 1980s as the Þórsmörk ignimbrite is to the east of Tindfjallajökull but the composition of other Tindfjallajökull eruptives later studied is different. The Þórsmörk ignimbrite had covered some of the sides of Tindfjallajökull but had a composition characteristic of Tindfjöll.[12]
The Rauðfossafjöll tuya at the western aspects of the Torfajökull volcano is dated at 67,000 ± 9,000 years ago.[15]
Glaciers
edit| Torfajökull | |
|---|---|
| Type | Glacier |
| Location | Iceland |
| Coordinates | 63°53′39″N 19°07′37″W / 63.89417°N 19.12694°W |
| Area | 8.1 km2 (3.1 sq mi).[16] |
| Status | Retreating |
 Map of Torfajökull and to its west Kaldaklofsjökull glaciers. (light grey shading with white outline). Clicking on the map to enlarge it enables mouse over that allows identification of other glacial catchments. | |
The two glaciers, Torfajökull and Kaldaklofsjökull, that cover the south–eastern portions of the central volcano are regressing. In 1945 Torfajökull was 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi) in area, in 1999 11 km2 (4.2 sq mi), and by 2019 it was down to 8.1 km2 (3.1 sq mi).[16][17] It has lost 64 % of its maximum mapped area.[16] Kaldaklofsjökull, to the west of Torfajökull has regressed even more being by 2019, 79 % of its past maximum area at only 1.6 km2 (0.62 sq mi).[16]
Naming
editAccording to legend, the glacier is named for Torfi Jónsson í Klofa, an Icelandic historical figure. When the plague arrived in Iceland in 1493, Torfi fled with his family and his belongings into the highlands and settled in a valley surrounded by the glacier.[18]
According to another legend, the glacier is named for Torfi, a farm worker at a nearby farm. Torfi eloped with the farmer's daughter and fled to the glacier.[19]
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ a b This article when reviewed as a stub gave an unreferenced height of 1,259 m (4,131 ft) which does not agree with any identified original source but is close to the current height of Kaldaklofsfjöll. So to provide best article historic consistency the height of Háskerðingur as determined by modern survey methods at 1,281 m (4,203 ft) was chosen. Traditional survey height of Háskerðingur was 1,278 m (4,193 ft). The peak near the southern edge of the Torfajökull glacier was 1,190 m (3,900 ft) by traditional survey, but is 1,199 m (3,934 ft) on modern survey and one to the north-east of the glacier had been by traditional survey assigned a height of 1,175 m (3,855 ft) but on modern survey is 1,192 m (3,911 ft).[1] The heights quoted in the volcano literature of 1,190 m (3,900 ft)[3] and 1,280 m (4,200 ft)[4] which are usually trusted sources, may thus be explained.
- ^ a b c Timings published before 2017 in the literature for the Settlement tephra layer need adjustment. The Greenland ice core studies now date this as 877,[7] while previous to 2017 this was dated as 871.[8] Timings were adjusted after the Icelandic tree ring series was extended to 822.[9]
- ^ All the previous timings based on lava samples were off by 22,000 years, and events assigned to about 70,000 years ago before 2019 are still in the recent literature. This is because feldspar crystals yield older ages of 77 ± 6 ka than other techniques of which the currently most accurate time is 55.4 ± 2.5 ka.[12]
References
edit- ^ a b c "National Land Survey of Iceland-Mapviewer (Kortasja-Landmælingar Íslands)". Retrieved 26 May 2024.
- ^ a b Sæmundsson, Kristján; Larsen, Gudrún (2019). "Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes:Torfajökull". Retrieved 26 May 2024.: Detailed Description:1. Geological setting and tectonic context
- ^ Sæmundsson, Kristján; Larsen, Gudrún (2019). "Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes:Torfajökull". Retrieved 26 May 2024.: Central Volcano
- ^ a b "Torfajökull". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Zellmer, G.F.; Rubin, K.H.; Grönvold, K.; Jurado-Chichay, Z. (2008). "On the recent bimodal magmatic processes and their rates in the Torfajökull–Veidivötn area, Iceland". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 269 (3–4): 387–397. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.026.
- ^ Boygle, J. (1999). "Variability of tephra in lake and catchment sediments, Svínavatn, Iceland". Global and Planetary Change. 21 (1): 129-149. Bibcode:1999GPC....21..129B. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(99)00011-9.
- ^ Gabriel, I.; Plunkett, G.; Abbott, P.M.; Behrens, M.; Burke, A.; Chellman, N.; Cook, E.; Fleitmann, D.; Hörhold, M.; Hutchison, W.; McConnell, J.R. (2024). "Decadal-to-centennial increases of volcanic aerosols from Iceland challenge the concept of a Medieval Quiet Period". Communications Earth & Environment. 5 (1): 194. Bibcode:2024ComEE...5..194G. doi:10.1038/s43247-024-01350-6.
- ^ Gudmundsdóttir, E.R.; Larsen, G.; Björck, S.; Ingólfsson, Ó.; Striberger, J. (2016). "A new high-resolution Holocene tephra stratigraphy in eastern Iceland: Improving the Icelandic and North Atlantic tephrochronology". Quaternary Science Reviews. 150: 234–249. Bibcode:2016QSRv..150..234G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.08.011. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Büntgen, U.; Eggertsson, Ó.; Wacker, L.; Sigl, M.; Ljungqvist, F.C.; Di Cosmo, N.; Plunkett; Krusic, P.J.; Newfield, T.P.; Esper, J.; Lane, C. (2017). "Multi-proxy dating of Iceland's major pre-settlement Katla eruption to 822–823 CE". Geology. 45 (9): 783–786. Bibcode:2017Geo....45..783B. doi:10.1130/G39269.1.
- ^ a b c d e f Martins, J.E.; Ruigrok, E.; Draganov, D.; Hooper, A.; Hanssen, R.F.; White, R.S.; Soosalu, H. (2019). "Imaging Torfajökull's magmatic plumbing system with seismic interferometry and phase velocity surface wave tomography". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 124 (3): 2920–2940.
- ^ a b c d e Sæmundsson, Kristján; Larsen, Gudrún (2019). "Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes:Torfajökull". Retrieved 26 May 2024.: Detailed Description:4. Eruption history and pattern
- ^ a b c d e Moles, J.D.; McGarvie, D.; Stevenson, J.A.; Sherlock, S.C.; Abbott, P.M.; Jenner, F.E.; Halton, A.M. (2019). "Widespread tephra dispersal and ignimbrite emplacement from a subglacial volcano (Torfajökull, Iceland)". Geology. 47 (6): 577–580. doi:10.1130/G46004.1.
- ^ "Thórsmörk Ignimbrite(correlated to Ash Zone 2)". VOGRIPA. Retrieved 27 May 2024. This source has not been updated by post 2019 knowledge.
- ^ Davies, S.M.; Albert, P.G.; Bourne, A.J.; Owen, S.; Svensson, A.; Bolton, M.S.; Cook, E.; Jensen, B.J.; Jones, G.; Ponomareva, V.V.; Suzuki, T. (2024). "Exploiting the Greenland volcanic ash repository to date caldera-forming eruptions and widespread isochrons during the Holocene". Quaternary Science Reviews. 334: 108707. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108707.
- ^ a b Guillou, H.; Scao, V.; Nomade, S.; Van Vliet-Lanoë, B.; Liorzou, C.; Guðmundsson, Á. (2019). "40Ar/39Ar dating of the Thorsmork ignimbrite and Icelandic sub-glacial rhyolites". Quaternary Science Reviews. 209: 52–62. Bibcode:2019QSRv..209...52G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.02.014.: Conclusions
- ^ a b c d Hannesdóttir, H.; Sigurðsson, O.; Þrastarson, R.H.; Guðmundsson, S.; Belart, J.M.; Pálsson, F.; Magnusson, E.; Víkingsson, S.; Kaldal, I.; Jóhannesson, T. (2020). "A national glacier inventory and variations in glacier extent in Iceland from the Little Ice Age maximum to 2019". Jökull. 12: 1–34. doi:10.33799/jokull2020.70.001.: Table 2.
- ^ Miodońska, Alicja. Assessing evolution of ice caps in Suðurland, Iceland, in years 1986 - 2014, using multispectral satellite imagery: Masters Thesis (Thesis). Lund, Sweden: Lund University. pp. 1–110.: 20
- ^ "Sagnir af Torfa í Klofa". Archived from the original on 23 January 2023.
- ^ "Torfajökull". Archived from the original on 15 July 2011.