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Tufa Shujineng's Rebellion

This article is about the rebellion which occurred during the reign of Emperor Wu of Jin. For the rebellion which occurred in (approximately) the same region during the Eastern Han era, see Liang Province rebellion.

Tufa Shujineng's Rebellion, also known as the Qin and Liang Provinces Rebellion (Chinese: 秦涼之變), was a tribal rebellion against the Western Jin dynasty from c.July 270 to early 280 during the Three Kingdoms period. It was led by the Xianbei chieftain Tufa Shujineng, who was joined by several tribal ethnic groups such as the Qiang and Di living in northwestern China. The rebellion lasted nearly a decade and reached its peak in 279 when rebel forces captured Liang province. However, the end of that same year would also see its end as Jin forces decisively defeated Shujineng and pacified the tribes.

Tufa Shujineng's Rebellion
Datec.July 270[1] – January or February 280[2]
Location
Gansu and Xinjiang, China
Result Western Jin victory
Belligerents
Western Jin

Xianbei, Qiang, Di and other tribal rebels

Rebels in Dunhuang Commandery
Commanders and leaders
Hu Lie  †
Su Yu
Shi Jian
Qian Hong  †
Sima Jun
Wen Yang
Ma Xun
Yang Xin  †
Ma Long

Tufa Shujineng  †
Various tribal leaders

Linghu Feng
Linghu Hong  †
Strength
3,500 (Ma Long) 200,000+

Background

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During the Western Jin dynasty, northwestern China was home to various tribal ethnic groups. The neighbouring Qiang people to the west had been migrating inwards into the Longxi and Guanzhong regions as early as the Western Han dynasty, where they would often rebel due to oppressive policies by the local Han governors. The Di people, despite their relatively stable relation with the Han dynasty, also began rebelling with the Qiang during the fall of Han, and in 219, the statesman, Cao Cao, had 50,000 of them relocated from Wudu Commandery to live along the Wei River in the Guanzhong. Descendants of the Xiongnu such as the Lushuihu and Chuge also resided in the northwest.

At the time, the Xianbei tribes of the northern steppe were migrating southward into the Chinese interior. Many of them were able to easily cross into and roam the Hexi Corridor, where one tribe, the Tufa, began asserting considerable influence within the region. Sometime between 256 and 263, the Cao Wei general, Deng Ai received the surrender of tens of thousands of Xianbei people from the Hexi, resettling them in the areas between Liang and Yong provinces.

In 268, parts of northern China were hit by floods and droughts, and the minister, Fu Xuan feared that the tribes in the northwest, particularly the Xianbei, would rebel. He proposed that the Inspector of Qin province, Hu Lie be tasked in quelling a future revolt due to his reputation in the west. However, he was still concerned that even if Hu Lie defeated the rebels, they could easily escape to the commanderies of Anding or Wuwei (武威郡; in present-day Jingyuan County, Gansu), so he also suggested setting up a new commandery around Gaopingchuan (高平川; in present-day Guyuan, Ningxia), where settlers will be recruited and supplemented with corvée exemptions. The commandery, along with Anding and Wuwei, would be transferred to Qin under Hu Lie. Fu Xuan also suggested opening a new northbound passage to encourage migration and gradually strengthen their hold on the border.[3]

One minister, Chen Qian warned against appointing Hu Lie and another general, Qian Hong, as provincial inspectors. He argued that while the two were strong generals, they were both tactless and not suited to maintain order around the borders. However, his advice was ignored.[4]

The rebellion

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Early rebel success

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A rebellion soon broke out in Qin in June or July 270 after Hu Lie lost the support of the tribes. The rebellion's leader was Tufa Shujineng, the chieftain of the Tufa tribe in Hexi. Although Shujineng was a Xianbei, historical records indicate that the rebellion consisted of several different tribal people, with the rebels being collectively referred to as "Qiang" or "Di".[5][6]

Hu Lie led his troops and camped at Wanhu Mound (萬斛堆; located in Gaolan County, Gansu) to campaign against Shujineng. However, Shujineng and the chieftains, Baihuwen (白虎文) and Yaolanni (藥蘭泥), surrounded Hu Lie's army and killed him.[7][8] The Prince of Fufeng, Sima Liang, was supposed to send reinforcements to help Hu Lie through his subordinates Liu Qi (劉旂) and Jing Yan (敬琰), but the two refused to move their troops. Emperor Wu of Jin wanted to punish Liu Qi, but Sima Liang defended him and lost his post in the process.[9] Later, the Inspector of Liang, Su Yu, led forces who were also routed by Shujineng at Mount Jin (金山; located in Shandan county, Gansu).[10][11]

With the removal of Sima Liang, Emperor Wu sent the General Who Maintains the West, Shi Jian (石鑒) and Protector-General of Vehement Might, Tian Zheng (田章) to put down the revolt. Shi Jian ordered his subordinate, Du Yu, to attack Shujineng. However, Du Yu remonstrated with him, stating that the enemies were still in high spirits after their recent victories, as opposed to the demoralized Jin troops. He instead suggested that they wait until the following spring to attack, building up strength and storing up grains in the meantime. Shi Jian thought that Du Yu was trying to jeopardize the campaign, so he had Du Yu sent back to Luoyang in a prison cart for him to face the Minister of Justice. Shi Jian then carried out his original plans, but he could not defeat Shujineng.[12] On 27 August 270,[13] Sima Jun (司马骏), Prince of Ruyin, was appointed Grand General Who Guards The West and Chief Controller of Yong, Liang and the other western provinces, and he was tasked in protecting the Guanzhong.[14]

In April or May 271, Shujineng was joined by the tribes of Beidi (北地; in present-day Qingyang, Gansu) in his invasion of Jincheng (金城; around present-day Yuzhong County, Gansu). The Inspector of Liang, Qian Hong, led his troops to fight Shujineng's forces, but the Qiang troops within Qian's army, dissatisfied by his mistreatment of them, rebelled and join Shujineng. Shujineng, Baihuwen and Yaolanni defeated and killed Qian Hong at Mount Qing (青山; located in Huan county, Gansu) after surrounding his army.[8][15] Yang Xin was then made the new Inspector of Liang.

In 272, the Administrator of Dunhuang, Yin Qu (尹璩), died. Yang Xin petitioned that the Prefect of Dunhuang, Liang Cheng (梁澄), succeed to Yin Qu's office. However, an Officer of Merit, Song Zhi (宋質), deposed Liang Cheng and replaced him with the Consultant, Linghu Feng (令狐豐). Yang Xin led his soldiers to campaign against Linghu Feng, but he was defeated by Song Zhi's army.[16]

Previously, Deng Ai had repaired parapets and built many forts in Liang and Yong provinces for defensive purposes during his time. After Shujineng's rebellion broke out, many officials and local residents took refuge in these forts.[17]

Reactions in Jin court

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The rebellion in Qin and Liang caused much worry for Emperor Wu. In 271, two of his ministers, Ren Kai (任愷) and Yu Chun (庾純), attempted to undermine their political enemy, Jia Chong, by recommending to Emperor Wu that he be sent to lead the fight against Shujineng. Emperor Wu agreed and even issued an edict appointing Jia Chong to the necessary positions. Jia Chong was distressed by Emperor Wu's decision, but with Xun Xu's help, he was able to remain in Luoyang after securing a marriage between his daughter, Jia Nanfeng, and Emperor Wu's heir, Sima Zhong.[18] When the general, Yang Hu, submitted his petition advocating for the invasion of Jin's rival state, Eastern Wu, he was strongly opposed by many other ministers, who argued that quelling the rebellion in Qin and Liang should be of greater priority.[19]

Jin counterattack

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After the failed attempts at quelling the rebellion, Sima Jun focused his soldiers on agriculture in Guanzhong. In September or October 274, rebels from Liang attacked Jincheng again, but Sima Jun defeated them and killed one of their leaders, Qiwenni (乞文泥).[20] In 275, he campaigned against Shujineng and defeated his forces, killing 3,000 rebels.[21] Later that year, when Sima Jun was ordered to lead 7,000 soldiers to strengthen the garrison in Liang, Shujineng, Houdanbo (侯彈勃) and their followers planned to raid the military-agricultural colonies in Guanzhong in his absence. However, his subordinate, Wen Yang, led a combined force from Liang, Qin and Yong to threaten the rebels. Shujineng sent Houdanbo and twenty tribesmen to submit to Jin, each sending their sons as hostages. Wen Yang also received the surrender of 200,000 tribal people from Anding, Beidi and Jincheng including the chieftains Jikeluo (吉軻羅), Houjinduo (侯金多) and Rejiong (熱冏).[22][23] Meanwhile, in c.July, the Wu and Ji Colonel, Ma Xun (馬循), who was based in the Western Regions, campaigned against Xianbei rebels and killed their leader.[24]

In spring 276, Linghu Feng died and was succeeded by his younger brother, Linghu Hong (令狐宏). Yang Xin launched another attack on Dunhuang, and this time, he killed Linghu Hong and recaptured the commandery.[25] Afterwards, in c.June, Sima Jun campaigned against the northern "Hu" (北胡) and killed one of their leaders, Tudun (吐敦).[26] Later in c.August, a Xianbei leader, Aluoduo (阿羅多) attacked the Jin border. Ma Xun commanded his troops to defeat him, killing 4,000 and capturing 9,000 of them, which prompted Aluoduo to surrender.[27] About four months later,[28] in c.December, Sima Jun was promoted to Senior General Who Attacks the West.[29]

Battle of Liang Province

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Fall of Liang province

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Peace between Jin and Shujineng did not last, as Shujineng and the tribes revolted again in 277. He initially suffered another defeat to Wen Yang,[30] but later that year, Sima Jun was recalled to the capital and replaced with Sima Tai (司馬泰) in Guanzhong. By 278, Yang Xin would also lose the tribes' support. That year, he fought with Ruoluobaneng (若羅拔能) and others on the Dang Ranges (丹嶺) in Wuwei, but was defeated and beheaded.[31] As Shujineng continued to harass Jin's borders, the Jin minister Li Xi (李憙) suggested that they send an army to defeat Shujineng, but the emperor's advisers disagreed, believing the situation was not as serious as Li thought.[32] However, by c.February 279, Shujineng captured Liang. Emperor Wu regretted the situation to the point that records claim he was unable to eat until late in the evening.[33][34]

Jin preparations

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The emperor's advisers initially considered sending the Jin general of Xiongnu ethnicity, Liu Yuan, to recapture the province, but decided not to out of fear that he would also rebel.[35] Instead, a junior Jin general by the name of Ma Long volunteered to lead a Jin army and defeat Shujineng. Emperor Wu agreed and appointed him Protector-General Who Campaigns Against The Caitiffs and Administrator of Wuwei, despite objections from his minister. Before the campaign, Ma Long sought out around 3,000 strong men who were able to draw bows that were four juns (approx. 26 kilograms) and use 'waist-spun crossbows' (腰引弩) that were 36 juns (approx. 238 kilograms). In the end, he was able to find 3,500 men, and he had them practice their accuracy by shooting targets.[36] Ma Long then requested and received fresh military supplies that would last him up to three years.

Ma Long's tactics

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In November 279, Ma Long set out west to fight the rebels. After the Jin troops crossed the Wen River (溫水; east of present-day Jingyuan County, Gansu), Shujineng responded by having tens of thousands of his rebels occupy the passes to block Ma Long's front, while the others set up ambushes to intercept his rear.

During his battles with Shujineng, Ma Long employed a number of unorthodox tactics. In accordance with Zhuge Liang's 'Eightfold Battle Formations' (八陣圖), Ma Long built ‘flat box carts’ (偏箱車; a cart with a board on one side which acts like a shield) for his soldiers to use. When fighting in the open, he employed 'deer-antlered carts' (鹿角車; a cart with spears and halberds on the front, giving it an antler-like shape), and when passing through narrow roads, he built wooden roofs over the carts. His soldiers were able to move while fighting, and the enemy arrows were unable to hit them.[37] More questionably, another tactic that Ma Long used was placing down large amounts of 'magnetic stones' on the ground to slow down the enemy advances, the reason being that the rebels and their horses often wore iron armor while his men wore armor made of rhinoceros hides. The rebels were taken by surprise and thought the Jin soldiers were divine beings.[38]

End of the rebellion

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While Ma Long fought in the west, a rumour began circulating in the court that he and his men had been cut off, but it was quickly dispelled after his messenger arrived at the court.[39] Emperor Wu was pleased with Ma Long and further appointed him General Who Exhibits Might. As Ma Long marched to Wuwei, his troops killed and injured many of the rebels.[40] After reaching Wuwei, Shujineng's allied chieftains, Cubahan (猝跋韓) and Zuwanneng (且萬能), surrendered to him along with ten thousand troops under them. In December 279, Ma Long, with the help of Meiguneng (沒骨能) and other friendly tribal leaders, won a great battle over Shujineng and killed him.[41] Another account states that after Shujineng was defeated, he was assassinated by his subordinates, who then submitted to Ma Long.[42] Tufa Shujineng's rebellion was at its end.

Aftermath

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As Shujineng's defeat became assured, Emperor Wu began his conquest of Wu one month before the rebellion was quelled and unified China in May 280. Shujineng's cousin, Tufa Wuwan (禿髮務丸), was installed as the new chieftain of the Tufa. Despite their victory, Shujineng's rebellion, along with another albeit minor tribal revolt in Bing province led by Liu Meng in 272, raised concerns among a few ministers regarding the ethnic minorities living in the north. After the conquest, the minister, Guo Qin (郭欽) sent a petition to the court calling for the tribes to be relocated outside the border, but was rejected.

For the remainder of Emperor Wu's reign, the northwest remained mostly in peace. However, in 296 (during the reign of Emperor Hui), due to poor governance, the tribes, led by the Di chieftain, Qi Wannian, once again rebelled in Guanzhong, this time with more dire consequences that contributed towards the upheaval of the Five Barbarians. Jia Nanfeng and Sima Zhong's marriage, prompted by Shujineng's rebellion, also laid the seeds for the War of the Eight Princes.

References

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  1. ^ Vol.79 of Zizhi Tongjian recorded that Hu Lie was killed on 9 Jul 270 in the Julian calendar ([泰始六年]六月，戊午，胡烈讨鲜卑秃发树机能于万斛堆，兵败被杀。).
  2. ^ ([咸宁五年]十二月，马隆击叛虏树机能，大破，斩之，凉州平。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 19 Jan to 17 Feb 280 in the Julian calendar.
  3. ^ (其五曰，臣以為胡夷獸心，不與華同，鮮卑最甚。本鄧艾苟欲取一時之利，不慮後患，使鮮卑數萬散居人間，此必為害之勢也。秦州刺史胡烈素有恩信於西方，今烈往，諸胡雖已無惡，必且消弭，然獸心難保，不必其可久安也。若後有動釁，烈計能制之。惟恐胡虜適困於討擊，便能東入安定，西赴武威，外名為降，可動復動。此二郡非烈所制，則惡胡東西有窟穴浮游之地，故復為患，無以禁之也。宜更置一郡于高平川，因安定西州都尉募樂徙民，重其復除以充之，以通北道，漸以實邊。詳議此二郡及新置郡，皆使並屬秦州，令烈得專禦邊之宜。) Jin Shu, vol.47
  4. ^ (騫因入朝，言於帝曰：「胡烈、牽弘皆勇而無謀，強于自用，非綏邊之材，將為國恥。願陛下詳之。」時弘為揚州刺史，不承順騫命。) Jin Shu, vol.35
  5. ^ (及氐羌反叛，時帝深以爲慮，愷因進説，請充鎮關中。) Jin Shu, vol.40
  6. ^ (會秦州刺史胡烈為羌虜所害...) Jin Shu, vol.59
  7. ^ (烈為秦州刺史，及涼州叛，烈屯于萬斛堆，為虜所圍，無援，遇害。) Jin Shu, vol.57
  8. ^ a b (一曰，昔歲及此年，藥蘭泥、白虎文秦涼殺刺史胡烈、牽弘，遣田璋討泥。) Song Shu, vol.33
  9. ^ (都督雍、涼州諸軍事扶風王亮遣將軍劉旂救之，旂觀望不進。亮坐貶爲平西將軍，旂當斬。亮上言：「節度之咎，由亮而出，乞丐其死。」詔曰：「若罪不在旂，當有所在。」乃免亮官。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.79
  10. ^ (叛虜寇秦、涼，刺史胡烈、蘇愉並為所害。) Song Shu, vol.34
  11. ^ (樹機能敗涼州刺史蘇愉于金山...) Jin Shu, vol.126
  12. ^ (屬虜兵強盛，石鑒時為安西將軍，使預出兵擊之。預以虜乘勝馬肥，而官軍懸乏，宜並力大運，須春進討，陳五不可、四不須。鑒大怒，復奏預擅飾城門官舍，稽乏軍興，遣御史檻車征詣廷尉。以預尚主，在八議，以侯贖論。其後隴右之事卒如預策。) Jin Shu, vol.34
  13. ^ ([泰始六年]秋七月...丁未，以汝阴王骏为镇西大将军、都督雍凉二州诸军事。) Jin Shu, vol.03
  14. ^ (遷鎮西大將軍、使持節、都督雍涼等州諸軍事，代汝南王亮鎮關中，加袞冕侍中之服。) Jin Shu, vol.38
  15. ^ ([泰始七年]夏四月，北地胡寇金城，凉州刺史牵弘讨之。群虏内叛，围弘于青山，弘军败，死之。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 27 Apr to 25 May 271 in the Julian calendar.
  16. ^ (敦煌太守尹璩卒。涼州刺史楊欣表敦煌令梁澄領太守。功曹宋質輒廢澄，表議郎令狐豐爲太守。楊欣遣兵擊之，爲質所敗。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.79
  17. ^ (艾在西時，修治障塞，築起城塢。泰始中，羗虜大叛，頻殺刺史，涼州道斷。吏民安全者，皆保艾所築塢焉。) Sanguozhi, vol.28
  18. ^ (賈充將之鎭，公卿餞於夕陽亭。充私問計於荀勗，勗曰：「公爲宰相，乃爲一夫所制，不亦鄙乎！然是行也，辭之實難，獨有結婚太子，可不辭而自留矣。」充曰：「然則孰可寄懷？」勗曰︰「勗請言之。」因謂馮紞曰：「賈公遠出，吾等失勢；太子婚尚未定，何不勸帝納賈公之女乎！」紞亦然之... 后固以爲請，荀顗、荀勗、馮紞皆稱充女絕美，且有才德，帝遂從之。留充復居舊任。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.79
  19. ^ (而朝議方以秦、涼爲憂，祜復表曰：「吳平則胡自定，但當速濟大功耳。」議者多有不同，賈充、荀勗、馮紞尤以伐吳爲不可。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.79
  20. ^ ([泰始十年]八月，涼州虜寇金城諸郡，鎮西將軍、汝陰王駿討之，斬其帥乞文泥等。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 18 Sep to 17 Oct 274 in the Julian calendar.
  21. ^ (咸甯初，羌虜樹機能等叛，遣眾討之，斬三千餘級。) Jin Shu, vol.38
  22. ^ ([咸寧元年]二月...叛虜樹機能送質請降。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The 2nd month of the 1st year of the Xian'ning era corresponds to 14 Mar to 12 Apr 275 in the Julian calendar.
  23. ^ (樹機能、侯彈勃等欲先劫佃兵，駿命平虜護軍文俶督涼、秦、雍諸軍各進屯以威之。機能乃遣所領二十部彈勃面縛軍門，各遣入質子。安定、北地、金城諸胡吉軻羅、侯金多及北虜熱冏等二十萬口又來降。) Jin Shu, vol.38
  24. ^ ([咸宁元年]六月...西域戊己校尉馬循討叛鮮卑，破之，斬其渠帥。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 10 Jul to 8 Aug 275 in the Julian calendar.
  25. ^ ([咸宁二年]春，令狐豐卒，弟宏繼立，楊欣討斬之。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.80
  26. ^ ([咸宁二年]夏五月，鎮西大將軍、汝陰王駿討北胡，斬其渠帥吐敦。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 30 May to 28 Jun 276 in the Julian calendar.
  27. ^ ([咸宁二年]秋七月，....鮮卑阿羅多等寇邊，西域戊己校尉馬循討之，斬首四千餘級，獲生九千餘人，於是來降。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 28 Jul to 26 Aug 276 in the Julian calendar.
  28. ^ The 2nd year of the Xian'ning era had a leap 9th month.
  29. ^ ([咸寧二年]冬十月，以汝陰王駿爲征西大將軍，平南將軍羊祜爲征南大將軍。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 23 Nov to 22 Dec 276 in the Julian calendar.
  30. ^ ([咸寧三年]三月，平虜護軍文淑討叛虜樹機能等，並破之。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 20 Apr to 19 May 277 in the Julian calendar.
  31. ^ (司馬督東平馬隆上言：「涼州刺史楊欣失羌戎之和，必敗。」[咸宁四年]夏，六月，欣與樹機能之黨若羅拔能等戰于武威，敗死。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.80. The month corresponds to 7 Jul to 5 Aug 278 in the Julian calendar.
  32. ^ (鮮卑樹機能久爲邊患，僕射李憙請發兵討之，朝議皆以爲出兵重事，虜不足憂。) Zizhi Tongjian, vol.80
  33. ^ ([咸宁]五年春正月，虜帥樹機能攻陷涼州。) Jin Shu, vol.03. The month corresponds to 30 Jan to 27 Feb 279 in the Julian calendar.
  34. ^ (盡有涼州之地，武帝為之旰食。) Jin Shu, vol.126
  35. ^ (後秦涼覆沒，帝疇咨將帥，上党李憙曰：「陛下誠能發匈奴五部之眾，假元海一將軍之號，鼓行而西，可指期而定。」孔恂曰：「李公之言，未盡殄患之理也。」憙勃然曰：「以匈奴之勁悍，元海之曉兵，奉宣聖威，何不盡之有！」恂曰：「元海若能平涼州，斬樹機能，恐涼州方有難耳。蛟龍得雲雨，非復池中物也。」帝乃止。) Jin Shu, vol.101
  36. ^ (隆募限腰引弩三十六鈞、弓四鈞，立標簡試。自旦至中，得三千五百人，隆曰：「足矣。」) Jin Shu, vol.57
  37. ^ (隆依八陣圖作偏箱車，地廣則鹿角車營，路狹則為木屋施于車上，且戰且前，弓矢所及，應弦而倒。) Jin Shu, vol.57
  38. ^ (奇謀間發，出敵不意。或夾道累磁石，賊負鐵鎧，行不得前，隆卒悉被犀甲，無所留礙，賊咸以為神。) Jin Shu, vol.57
  39. ^ (自隆之西，音問斷絕，朝廷憂之，或謂已沒。後隆使夜到，帝撫掌歡笑。) Jin Shu, vol.57
  40. ^ (轉戰千里，殺傷以千數。) Jin Shu, vol.57
  41. ^ (隆到武威，虜大人猝跋韓、且萬能等率萬餘落歸降，前後誅殺及降附者以萬計。又率善戎沒骨能等與樹機能大戰，斬之，涼州遂平。) Jin Shu, vol.57
  42. ^ (樹機能後為馬隆所敗，部下殺之以降。) Jin Shu, vol.126
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